What is Genghis Khan?

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Genghis Khan
Khagan of Mongol Empire ("Khan of the Mongols")
Reign	1206 – 18 August, 1227
Coronation	1206 during khurultai at Khentii Province, Mongolia
Full name	Genghis Khan (birthname: Temüjin)
Titles	Khan, Khagan
Born	ca. 1162
	Khentii Province, Mongolia
Died	18 July 1227
	(location uncertain)
Buried	(unknown)
Predecessor	(title created)
Successor	Ögedei Khan
Consort	Börte Ujin Kulan Yisugen Yisui others
Issue	Jochi Chagatai Ögedei Tolui others
Royal House	Borjigin
Father	Yesükhei
Mother	Ho'elun

Genghis Khan (helpinfo) (IPA: [ʧiŋgɪs χaːŋ]; Mongolian: Чингис Хаан; classic Mongolian: (see below for alternative spellings); ca. 1162^[1]–August 18, 1227) was a Mongol Khan (ruler) and posthumously Khagan (emperor^[2]) of the Mongol Empire, an empire he founded in 1206. Born with the name Temüjin (Mongolian: Тэмүжин) into the Borjigin clan, he united the Central Asian tribes and founded the Mongol Empire (1206–1368), the largest contiguous and second largest overall empire in world history.

Genghis Khan was a Mongolian warlord and a highly respected figure in Mongolian history. He is currently regarded as the father of the Mongol nation. During his rule, he quickly became known for his aggressive military practices, and his highly successful battle tactics against larger and more advanced foes such as China and Middle East^[3]. This formidable status, along with his military success, forged one of the largest and most feared empires in history, an empire that spanned thousands of miles with a reputation that eventually encircled the globe. As a result of his success, many areas of southwestern Asia, the Middle East, and Europe believed Genghis Khan to be a brutal conqueror/dictator, comparable to Adolf Hitler or Joseph Stalin.^[4] Other historians maintain that Genghis, along with his empire, was well organized and efficient, absorbing other cultures and communicating across vast distances with a form of written mail. Subjects of the Mongol Empire were free to practice their own religion and worship as they pleased, as long as their allegiance was to the Khan. Much of recorded history regarding Genghis Khan was recorded by the conquered and subjugated peoples that were absorbed into the empire,^[5] or by the enthusiastic supporters of Khan's empire and its expansion, which accounts for the bias in both popular beliefs. To this day, there is much debate on whether Genghis Khan was a strong and visionary leader, or a bloodthirsty and ruthless conqueror.

Before becoming a Khan, Temüjin united many of the nomadic tribes of north-east Asia and Central Asia, forging a new social identity as "Mongols." Starting with the invasion of western Xia and Jin Dynasty in northern China and through numerous conquests, consolidating the Khwarezmid Empire in Persia, Mongol rule across the Eurasian landmass dominated the demography and geopolitics of the region. Before its downfall, the Mongol Empire conquered or invaded large parts of East Asia, Central Asia, Northern Asia, the Middle East and Eastern Europe, attacking places as far as Central Europe and Southeast Asia.

Genghis Khan died in 1227 from an unknown illness. After his death his sons and grandsons rose to take his place, spurring the empire forward for another 150 years.

Early life

Birth

There is very little factual information about the earlier life of Temüjin due to the lack of written records. The few sources that provide insight into this period often disagree about many of the purported facts.

Temüjin was born around 1162 in a Mongol tribe near Khentii Province near the Burhan Haldun mountain range, not far from the current capital of Mongolia, Ulaanbaatar, near the Onon and the Kherlen Rivers. The Secret History of the Mongols states that Temüjin was born with a blood clot in his fist, an indication in the traditional Mongolian folklore that he was destined to become a great leader. Temüjin was the eldest son of Yesükhei, a minor tribal chief of the Kiyad and a nöker (vassal) of Ong Khan of the Kerait tribe,^[6] and was, again according to the Secret History, named after a Tartar chieftain that his father had just captured. The name also suggests that they may have descended from a family of blacksmiths (see section Name and title below).

Yesükhei's clan was called Borjigin (Боржигин), and Temüjin's mother, Hoelun, was from the Olkhunut tribe of the Mongol confederation. Like other tribes, they were nomads.

Because his father was a chieftain, as were his predecessors, Temüjin was of a royal or noble background. This relative higher social standing made it easier to solicit help. No valid, accurate portrait of Genghis exists today, and any portraits are merely artistic interpretations of him. The actual descriptions of Genghis Khan from those contemporary historians were quite different than what is found in the portraits. Muslim historian Rashid al-Din, foremost contemporary historian on Genghis Khan, recorded in his "Chronicles" that the legendary "glittering" ancestor of Genghis was tall, long-bearded, red-haired, and green-eyed. Rashid al-Din also described the first meeting of Genghis and Kublai Khan, when Genghis was shocked to find Kublai had not inherited his red hair.^[7] Genghis's Borjigid clan, al-Din also reveals, had a legend involving their clan: it began as the result of an affair (technically an immaculate conception) between Alan-ko and a stranger to her land, a glittering man who happened to have red hair and bluish-green eyes. Modern historian Paul Ratchnevsky has suggested in his Genghis biography that the "glittering man" may have been from the Kyrgyz people, who historically displayed these same characteristics.

Family and lineage

Main article: Family tree of Genghis Khan

Temüjin was related on his father's side to Qabul Khan, Ambaghai and Qutula Khan who had headed the Mongol confederation under the Jin Dynasty, until the Jin switched support to the Tatars in 1161 and destroyed Qabul Khan.^[8] Genghis' father, Yesükhei (leader of the Borjigin and nephew to Ambaghai and Qutula Khan) emerged as the head of the ruling clan of the Mongols, but this position was contested by the rival Tayichi’ud clan, who descended directly from Ambaghai. When the Tatars grew too powerful after 1161, the Jin moved their support from the Tatars to the Kerait.

Childhood and Family

Early life

Temüjin had three brothers, Khasar (or Qasar), Khajiun, and Temüge, and one sister, Temülen (or Temülin), as well as two half-brothers, Bekhter and Belgutei.

According to sources, Temüjin's early life was difficult. When he was only 9, as part of the marriage arrangement, his father Yesükhei delivered Temüjin to the family of his future wife Börte, members of the Onggirat tribe. He was to live there in service to Deisechen, the head of the household, until he reached the marriageable age of 12. He grew up in the tough political climate surrounding habitual tribal warfare, thievery, raids and revenges between the confederations and foreign forces. None of the confederations were under single political control, except the Chinese dynasties to the south.

While heading home, his father was poisoned during a meal with the neighbouring Tatars, who had long been enemies of the Mongols. Temüjin had to return home to claim the position of clan chief. However, his father's clan refused to be led by a boy so young. They abandoned him and his family, including his mother Hoelun, leaving them without protection.

For the next several years, Temüjin and his family lived in poverty, surviving primarily on wild fruits, marmots and other small game hunted by Temüjin and his brothers. It was during one of these hunting incidents that 13 year old Temüjin murdered his half-brother, Bekhter, in a dispute over hunting spoils.^[9] This incident cemented his position as head of the household.

In another incident in 1182 he was captured in a raid by his father's former allies, the Ta'yichiut, and was held captive. The Ta'yichiut enslaved Temüjin (reportedly with a cangue), but he escaped with help from a sympathetic watcher, the father of Chilaun (who would later become general of Genghis Khan), by escaping from the ger and hiding in river crevice. It was around this time that Jelme and Bo'orchu, two of Genghis Khan's future generals, joined forces with him. Along with his brothers, they provided the manpower needed for early expansion. Temüjin's reputation also became relatively widespread after his escape from the Ta'yichiut.

Family

His mother Hoelun taught him many lessons about survival in the harsh landscape, and the even grimmer political climate of Mongolia, especially the need for alliances with others, a lesson which would shape his understanding in his later years. One of the most important lessons he received occurred when she showed him an arrow, and told him to break it. He did so easily. Then she got a quiver-full of arrows and asked him to break them. He tried repeatedly but could not. His mother told him, "A single arrow breaks easily, just like one man. But when there are many men, nobody can break them."



As previously arranged by his father, Temüjin married Börte of the Konkirat tribe around when he was 16 in order to forge tribal alliances with her tribe. Börte had four sons, Jochi (1185–1226), Chagatai (?—1241), Ögedei (?—1241), and Tolui (1190–1232). Genghis Khan also had many other children with his other wives, but they were excluded from the succession, and records on daughters are nonexistent. The paternity of Genghis Khan's eldest son, Jochi, remains unclear to this day. It was a serious point of contention in his lifetime. Soon after Börte's marriage to Temüjin, she was kidnapped by the Merkits, and reportedly given away as a wife. Temüjin rescued her with the help of his friend and future rival, Jamuka, and his protector, Ong Khan of the Kerait tribe. She gave birth to Jochi nine months later, clouding the issue of his parentage. Despite sepculation over Jochi, Borte would be his only empress. This did not stop him from following tradition by taking several morganatic wives. According to traditional historical accounts, the issue over Jochi's paternity was voiced most strongly by Chagatai. In The Secret History of the Mongols, just before the invasion of the Khwarezmid Empire by Genghis Khan, Chagatai declares before his father and brothers that he would never accept Jochi as Genghis Khan's successor. In response to this tension^[10] and possibly for other reasons, it was Ögedei who was appointed as successor. He subsequently ruled as Khagan after Genghis Khan's death.

Jochi died in 1226, during his father's lifetime. Some scholars, notably Ratchnevsky, have commented on the possibility that Jochi was secretly poisoned by an order from Genghis Khan. Rashid al-Din reports that the great Khan sent for his sons in the spring of 1223, and while his brothers heeded the order, Jochi remained in Khorasan. Juzjani suggests that the disagreement arose from a quarrel between Jochi and his brothers in the siege of Urgench. Jochi had attempted to protect Urgench from destruction, as it belonged to territory allocated to him as a fief. He concludes his story with the clearly apocryphal statement by Jochi: "Genghis Khan is mad to have massacred so many people and laid waste so many lands. I would be doing a service if I killed my father when he is hunting, made an alliance with Sultan Muhammad, brought this land to life and gave assistance and support to the Muslims." Juzjani claims that it was in response to hearing of these plans that Genghis Khan ordered his son secretly poisoned; however, as Sultan Muhammad was already dead in 1223, the accuracy of this story is questionable. ^[11]

Temüjin put absolute trust in generals, such as Muqali, Jebe and Subudei, and gave them free rein in battles, like brothers. He allowed them to make decisions on their own when they embarked on campaigns far from the Mongol Empire capital Karakorum. Temüjin also became blood brother (anda) with Jamuka, and they vowed to remain eternally faithful.

Religion

Genghis Khan's religion is widely speculated to be Shamanism, which was very likely among nomadic Mongol-Turkic tribes of Central Asia. Later, Genghis Khan would become interested in the ancient Buddhism and Taoism religion from China. One Taoist monk, Ch'ang Ch'un, who had rejected invitations from Song and Jin leaders, travelled more than 5000 kilometres to meet Genghis Khan near the Afghanistan border. Genghis Khan asked if the monk had secret medicine that could make him immortal. The monk's negative answer disheartened Genghis Khan, and he lost interest in the monk thereafter.

Uniting the confederations

The Central Asian plateau (north of China) around the time of Temüjin was divided into several tribes or confederations, among them Naimans, Merkits, Uyghurs, Tatars, Mongols, Keraits that were all prominent in their own right and often unfriendly toward each other as evidenced by random raids, revenges, and plundering.

Temüjin began his slow ascent to power by offering himself as an ally (or, according to others sources, a vassal) to his father's anda (sworn brother or blood brother) Toghrul, who was Khan of the Kerait, and is better known by the Chinese title Ong Khan (or "Wang Khan"), which the Jin Empire granted him in 1197. This relationship was first reinforced when Börte was captured by the Merkits; it was to Toghrul that Temüjin turned for support. In response, Toghrul offered his vassal 20,000 of his Kerait warriors and suggested that he also involve his childhood friend Jamuka, who had himself become Khan (ruler) of his own tribe, the Jadaran.^[12] Although the campaign was successful and led to the recapture of Börte and utter defeat of the Merkits, it also paved the way for the split between the childhood friends, Temüjin and Jamuka.

The main opponents of the Mongol confederation (traditionally the "Mongols") circa 1200 were the Naimans to the west, the Merkits to the north, Tanguts to the south, the Jin and Tatars to the east. By 1190, Temüjin, his followers and advisors united the smaller Mongol confederation only. As an incentive for absolute obedience and following his rule of law, the Yassa code, Temüjin promised civilians and soldiers a wealth from future possible war spoils.

Toghrul's (Wang Khan) son Senggum was jealous of Temüjin's growing power, and his affinity with his father. He allegedly planned to assassinate Temüjin. Toghrul, though allegedly saved on multiple occasions by Temüjin, gave in to his son^[13] and became uncooperative with Temüjin. Temüjin learned of Senggum's intentions and eventually defeated him and his loyalists. One of the later ruptures between Toghrul and Temüjin was Toghrul's refusal to give his daughter in marriage to Jochi, the eldest son of Temüjin, a sign of disrespect in the Mongolian culture. This act led to the split between both factions, and was a prelude to war. Toghrul allied himself with Jamuka, who already opposed Temüjin's forces; however the internal dispute between Toghrul and Jamuka, plus the desertion of a number of their allies to Temüjin, led to Toghrul's defeat. Jamuka escaped during the conflict. This defeat was a catalyst for the fall and eventual dissemination of the Kerait tribe.

The next direct threat to Temüjin was the Naimans (Naiman Mongols), with whom Jamuka and his followers took refuge. The Naimans did not surrender, although enough sectors again voluntarily sided with Temüjin. In 1201, a kurultai elected Jamuka as Gur Khan, universal ruler, a title used by the rulers of the Kara-Khitan Khanate. Jamuka's assumption of this title was the final breach with Temüjin, and Jamuka formed a coalition of tribes to oppose him. Before the conflict, however, several generals abandoned Jamuka, including Subutai, Jelme's well-known younger brother. After several battles, Jamuka was finally turned over to Temüjin by his own men in 1206.

According to the Secret History, Temüjin again offered his friendship to Jamuka, asking him to return to his side. Temüjin had killed the men who betrayed Jamuka, stating that he did not want disloyal men in his army. Jamuka refused the offer of friendship and reunion, saying that there can only be one Sun in the sky, and he asked for a noble death. The custom is to die without spilling blood, which is granted by breaking the back. Jamuka requested this form of death, despite the fact that in the past Jamuka had been infamously known to have boiled his opponent's generals alive. The rest of the Merkit clan that sided with the Naimans were defeated by Subutai, a member of Temüjin's personal guard who would later become one of the successful commanders of Genghis Khan. The Naimans' defeat left Genghis Khan as the sole ruler of the Mongol plains, which means all the prominent confederations fell and/or united under Temüjin's Mongol confederation. Accounts of Genghis Khan's life are marked by claims of a series of betrayals and conspiracies. These include rifts with his early allies such as Jamuka (who also wanted to be a ruler of Mongol tribes) and Wang Khan (his and his father's ally), his son Jochi, and problems with the most important Shaman who was allegedly trying break him up with brother Qasar who was serving Genghis Khan loyally. Many modern scholars doubt that all of the conspiracies existed and suggest that Genghis Khan was probably inclined towards paranoia as a result of his experiences.

His military strategies showed a deep interest in gathering good intelligence and understanding the motivations of his rivals as exemplified by his extensive spy network and Yam route systems. He seemed to be a quick student, adopting new technologies and ideas that he encountered, such as siege warfare from the Chinese. The book Secret History makes it clear he was not physically courageous and even says he was afraid of dogs. Many legends claim that Genghis Khan always was in the front in battles, but these may not be historically accurate.

As a result by 1206 Temüjin had managed to unite the Merkits, Naimans, Mongols, Uyghurs, Keraits, Tatars and disparate other smaller tribes under his rule. It was a monumental feat for the "Mongols" (as they became known collectively), who had a long history of internecine dispute, economic hardship, and pressure from Chinese dynasties and empires. At a Kurultai, a council of Mongol chiefs, he was acknowledged as "Khan" of the consolidated tribes and took the new title Genghis Khan. The title Khagan was not conferred on Genghis until after his death, when his son and successor, Ögedei took the title for himself and extended it posthumously to his father (as he was also to be posthumously declared the founder of the Yuan Dynasty). This unification of all confederations by Genghis Khan established peace between previously warring tribes and a single political and military force under Genghis Khan.

See also:  and

Expansion and military campaigns

See also:

Conquest of the Western Xia Dynasty

Main article: Mongol Nation

During the 1206 political rise for Genghis Khan, the Mongol nation or Mongol Empire created by Genghis Khan and his allies was neighboured to the west by the Tanguts' Western Xia Dynasty. To its east and south was the Jin Dynasty, founded by the Manchurian Jurchens, who ruled northern China as well as being the traditional overlord of the Mongolian tribes for centuries.

Temüjin organised his people, army, and his state to prepare for war with Western Xia, or Xi Xia, which was closer to the Mongolian lands. He correctly believed that the Jin Dynasty had a young ruler who would not come to the aid of Xi Xia: when the Tanguts requested help from the Jin Dynasty, they were refused.^[14] On the other hand, the Jurchens had also probably grown uncomfortable with the newly unified Mongols, whom they traditionally fought against and had uncomfortable relationships with. It may be that some trade routes ran through Mongol territory, and they might have feared the Mongols eventually would restrict the supply of goods coming from the Silk Road. Genghis Khan and his supporters were also eager to take revenge against the Jurchen for their long subjugation of the Mongols by stirring up conflicts between Mongol tribes and also possibly for material gains and plunder. For instance, the Jurchen had executed some Mongol Khans in the past. Genghis Khan also probably wanted to keep his troop agile and with purpose and, in the meantime, keep himself in power. Genghis Khan led his army against Western Xia and conquered it, despite initial difficulties in capturing its well-defended cities. By 1209, Western Xia acknowledged Genghis as overlord.

Defeat of the Jin Dynasty

Main articles: Jin Dynasty, 1115–1234 and Yuan Dynasty

After the conquest of Western Xia, in 1211 Genghis Khan planned again to conquer the Jin Dynasty, Western Xia's southern neighbour. The commander of the Jin Dynasty army made a tactical mistake in not attacking the Mongols at the first opportunity. Instead, the Jin commander sent a messenger, Ming-Tan, to the Mongol side, who promptly defected and told the Mongols that the Jin army was waiting on the other side of the pass. At this engagement fought at Badger Pass the Mongols massacred thousands of Jin troops. In 1215 Genghis besieged, captured, and sacked the Jin capital of Yanjing (later known as Beijing). This forced the Jin Emperor Xuanzong to move his capital south to Kaifeng. These two main conquests were the subjugation of the Western Xia and Jin dynasties.

Conquest of the Kara-Khitan Khanate

Main article: Kara-Khitan Khanate

Meanwhile, Kuchlug, the deposed Khan of the Naiman confederation that Temüjin defeated or united, had fled west and usurped the khanate of Kara-Khitan (also known as Kara Kitay). Genghis Khan decided to conquer the Kara-Khitan khanate and defeat Kuchlug possibly to take him out of power. By this time the Mongol army was exhausted from ten years of continuous campaigning in China against the Western Xia and Jin Dynasty. Therefore, Genghis sent only two tumen (20,000 soldiers) against Kuchlug, under his younger general, Jebe, known as "The Arrow".

The strategy of the Mongols was to incite internal revolt in Kuchlug's supporters, leaving the Khara-Khitan khanate more vulnurable to Mongol conquest. As a result Kuchlug's army was defeated in west of Kashgar; however Kuchlug fled again, but was hunted down by Jebe's army and executed. By 1218 as a result of defeat of Kara-Khitan khanate, the Mongol Empire and its control extended as far west as Lake Balkhash, which bordered the Khwarezmia (Khwarezmid Empire), a Muslim state that reached the Caspian Sea to the west and Persian Gulf and the Arabian Sea to the south. These Genghis Khan's invasions probably got the attention of Khwarezmid Empire among others.

Invasion of Khwarezmid Empire

Main article: Mongol invasion of Central Asia

When Kara-Khitan khanate was defeated by Genghis Khan, it was bordered with the Khwarezmid Empire that was governed by Shah Ala ad-Din Muhammad. Genghis Khan saw the potential advantage in Khwarezmia (as it is also referenced) as a commercial trading partner, and sent a 500-man caravan to establish trade ties with the empire. However, Inalchuq, the governor of the Khwarezmian city of Otrar, attacked the caravan that came from Mongolia, claiming that the caravan was a conspiracy against Khwarezmia. He probably feared the Mongols after their victory over Western Xia, Jin Dynasty and the latest Kara-Kitan khanate. The situation became more complicated as the governor later refused to make repayments for the looting of the caravan and murder of its members. Genghis Khan then sent again a second group of ambassadors to meet the Shah himself. The Shah had all the men shaved and all but one beheaded. This was seen as an affront and insult to Genghis Khan. Outraged Genghis Khan planned one of his largest campaigns by organising together around 200,000 soldiers (20 tumens), his most capable generals and some of his sons to attack the Khwarezmian Dynasty for their actions.

The Mongol army under command of Genghis Khan, generals and son(s) crossed the Tien Shan mountains by entering the area controlled by the Khwarezmid Empire. After compiling intelligence from many sources Genghis Khan carefully prepared his army, which was divided into three groups. His son Jochi led the first division into the northeast of Khwarezmia. The second division under Jebe marched secretly to the southeast part of Khwarzemia to form, with the first division, a pincer attack on Samarkand. The third division under Genghis Khan and Tolui marched to the northwest and attacked Khwarzemia from that direction.

The Shah's army was split by diverse internal disquisitions and by the Shah's decision to divide his army into small groups concentrated in various cities — this fragmentation was decisive in Khwarezmia's defeats. Tired and exhausted from the journey, the Mongols still won their first victory against the Khwarezmian army. The Mongol army quickly seized the town of Otrar, relying on superior strategy and tactics. Once he had conquered the city, Genghis Khan executed many of the inhabitants and executed Inalchuq by pouring molten silver into his ears and eyes, as retribution for his actions. Also the Shah's fearful attitude towards the Mongol army also did not help his army. Near the end of the battle the Shah fled rather than surrender. Genghis Khan charged Subutai and Jebe with hunting him down, giving them two years and 20,000 men. The Shah died under mysterious circumstances on a small island within his empire.

According to stories, Genghis Khan diverted a river to Ala ad-Din Muhammad II of Khwarezm's birthplace, erasing it from the map. The Mongols' conquest was relatively brutal like their other battles by killing of both civilians and soldiers, plundering, pillaging, raping and possibly arson. However after the capital Samarkand fell, the capital was moved to Bukhara by the remaining men and Genghis Khan dedicated two of his generals and their forces to completely destroying the remnants of the Khwarezmid Empire. The heir Shah Jalal Al-Din, who was supported by the nearby town, battled the Mongols several times with his father's armies. However, internal disputes once again split his forces apart, and they were forced to flee Bukhara after yet another devastating defeat, effectively bringing the Khwarezmid Empire to an end.

In the meantime, Genghis Khan selected his third son Ögedei as his successor before his army set out, and specified that subsequent Khans should be his direct descendants. Genghis Khan also left Muqali, one of his most trusted generals, as the supreme commander of all Mongol forces in Jin China while he was out battling the Khwarezmid Empire to the west.

Attacks on Georgia and Volga Bulgaria

Main articles: Mongol invasions of Georgia and Mongol invasion of Volga Bulgaria

After the complete defeat of the Khwarezmid Empire in 1220, the Mongol army was split into two component forces (armies). Genghis Khan led a division on a raid through Afghanistan, Pakistan and northern India, while another contingent marched through the Caucasus and into Russia. As Genghis Khan gathered his forces in Persia and Armenia to return to the Mongolian steppes, the second force of 20,000 troops (two tumen), commanded by generals Jebe and Subutai, pushed deep into Armenia and Azerbaijan. The Mongols destroyed Georgia, sacked the Genoese trade-fortress of Caffa in Crimea, and overwintered near the Black Sea. Heading home, Subutai's forces attacked the Kipchaks and were intercepted by the allied but poorly coordinated troops of Mstislav the Bold of Halych and Mstislav III of Kiev, along with about 80,000 Kievan Rus' to stop their actions. Subutai sent emissaries to the Slavic princes calling for a separate peace, but the emissaries were executed. At the Battle of Kalka River in 1223, Subutai's forces defeated the larger Kievan force, while losing the battle of Samara Bend against the neighboring Volga Bulgars.^[15].

The Mongols learned from captives of the abundant green pastures beyond the Bulgar territory, allowing for the planning for conquest of Hungary and Europe. The Russian princes then sued for peace. Subutai agreed but was in no mood to pardon the princes. As was customary in Mongol society for nobility, the Russian princes were given a bloodless death. Subutai had a large wooden platform constructed on which he ate his meals along with his other generals. Six Russian princes, including Mstislav of Kiev, were put under this platform and crushed to death.

Genghis Khan recalled Subutai back to Mongolia soon afterwards, and Jebe died on the road back to Samarkand. Subutai and Jebe's famous cavalry expedition, in which they encircled the entire Caspian Sea defeating every single army in their path remains unparalleled to this day, and word of the Mongol triumphs began to trickle to other nations, particularly Europe.

These two campaigns are generally regarded as reconnaissance campaigns that tried to get the feel of the political and cultural elements of the regions. In 1225 both divisions returned to Mongolia. These invasions ultimately added Transoxiana and Persia to an already formidable empire while destroying any resistance along the way.

Under Genghis Khan's grandson Batu and Golden Horde, the Mongols returned to definitively conquer Volga Bulgaria and the Kievan Rus in 1237-1240.

Second war with the Western Xia and Jin Dynasty coalition

Main articles: Jin Dynasty, 1115–1234 and Yuan Dynasty

While most Mongol forces under Genghis Khan and his generals were out on campaign against the Khwarezmid Empire, the previously defeated or surrendered Western Xia and Jin Dynasty formed a coalition to resist the Mongols. Also the vassal emperor of the Tanguts (Western Xia) had refused to take part in the war against the Khwarezmid Empire. Because of this Genghis Khan again prepared for war against both Western Xia and Jin Dynasty. In 1226, Genghis Khan began to attack the Tanguts. In February, he took Heisui, Ganzhou and Suzhou, and in the autumn he took Xiliang-fu. One of the Tangut generals challenged the Mongols to a battle near Helanshan (Helan means "great horse" in the northern dialect, shan means "mountain"). The Tangut armies were soundly defeated. In November, Genghis laid siege to the Tangut city Lingzhou, and crossed the Yellow River and defeated the Tangut relief army. Genghis Khan reportedly saw a line of five stars arranged in the sky, and interpreted it as an omen of his victory. In 1227, Genghis Khan attacked and destroyed the Tangut capital of Ning Hia, and continued to advance, seizing Lintiao-fu in February, Xining province and Xindu-fu in March, and Deshun province in April. At Deshun, the Tangut general Ma Jianlong put up a fierce resistance for several days and personally led charges against the invaders outside the city gate. Ma Jianlong later died from wounds received from arrows in battle. Genghis Khan, after conquering Deshun, went to Liupanshan (Qingshui County, Gansu Province) to escape the severe summer. The new Tangut emperor quickly surrendered to the Mongols. The Tanguts officially surrendered in 1227, after having ruled for 187 years, beginning in 1038. Not happy with their betrayal and resistance, Genghis Khan ordered the imperial family to be executed. By this time Genghis Khan was not a young man anymore and his advancing age had led him to make preparations for his death.

In general the Mongol Empire campaigned six times against the Tanguts in 1202, 1207, 1209–1210, 1211–1213, 1214–1219 and 1225–1226 and this was one of them.

Death and burial

Main article: Tomb of Genghis Khan

On August 18, 1227, during his last campaign against the coalition of Jin Dynasty and Western Xia, Genghis Khan died. The reason for his death is uncertain. The speculations for his death are that he fell off his horse, due to old age and physical fatigue; some contemporary observers cited prophecies from his opponents. The Galician-Volhynian Chronicle alleges he was killed by the Tanguts. There are persistent folktales that a Tangut princess, to avenge her people and prevent her rape, castrated him with a knife hidden inside her vagina and that he never recovered.

Genghis Khan asked to be buried without markings. After he died, his body was returned to Mongolia and presumably to his birthplace in Khentii Aimag, where many assume he is buried somewhere close to the Onon River and the Burkhan Khaldun mountain (part of the Kentii mountain range). According to legend, the funeral escort killed anyone and anything across their path to conceal where he was finally buried. The Genghis Khan Mausoleum is his memorial, but not his burial site.

On October 6, 2004, "Genghis Khan's palace" was allegedly discovered and that may make it possible to find his burial site. Folklore says that a river was diverted over his grave to make it impossible to find (the same manner of burial of Sumerian King Gilgamesh of Uruk.) Other tales state that his grave was stampeded over by many horses, over which trees were then planted, and the permafrost also did its bit in hiding the burial site. The burial site remains undiscovered.

Genghis Khan left behind an army of more than 129,000 men; 28,000 were given to his various brothers and his sons. Tolui, his youngest son, inherited more than 100,000 men. This force contained the bulk of the elite Mongolian cavalry. By tradition, the youngest son inherits his father's property. Jochi, Chagatai, Ögedei Khan, and Kulan's son Gelejian received armies of 4,000 men each. His mother and the descendants of his three brothers received 3,000 men each.

Mongol Empire

Main article: Mongol Empire

Politics and economics

Main article: Organization of state under Genghis Khan

The Mongol Empire was governed by civilian and military code, called the Yassa code created by Genghis Khan.

Among nomads, the Mongol Empire did not emphasize the importance of ethnicity and race in the administrative realm, instead adopting an approach grounded in meritocracy. The exception was the role of Genghis Khan and his family. The Mongol Empire was one of the most ethnically and culturally diverse empires in history, as befitted its size. Many of the empire's nomadic inhabitants considered themselves Mongols in military and civilian life, including Turks, Mongols, and others and included many diverse Khans of various ethnicities as part of the Mongol Empire such as Muhammad Khan.

There were tax exemptions for religious figures and so to some extent teachers and doctors. The Mongol Empire practiced religious tolerance to a large degree because Mongol tradition had long held that religion was a very personal concept, and not subject to law or interference. Sometime before the rise of Genghis Khan, Ong Khan, his mentor and eventual rival, had converted to Nestorian Christianity. Various Mongol tribes were Buddhist, Muslim, shamanist or Christian. Religious tolerance was a well established concept on the Asian steppe.

The Mongol Empire managed to link together the previously fractured Silk Road states under one system. However, the Mongol conquests did lead to an almost total collapse of many of the ancient trading cities of Central Asia that resisted invasion. Taxes were also heavy and conquered people were used as forced labour in those regions as a punishment for their resistance. Strongholds like Bukhara, Samarkand and Baghdad continued to thrive during and after the Mongol period, after some period of rebuilding.

Modern Mongolian historians say that towards the end of his life, Genghis Khan attempted to create a civil state under the Great Yassa that would have established the legal equality of all individuals, including women.^[16] However, there is no contemporary evidence of this, or of the lifting of discriminatory policies towards sedentary peoples such as the Chinese. Women played a relatively important role in Mongol Empire and in family, for example Torogene Khatun was briefly in charge of the Mongol Empire when next male Khagan was being chosen. Modern scholars refer to the alleged policy of encouraging trade and communication as the Pax Mongolica (Mongol Peace).

Genghis Khan realized that he needed people who could govern cities and states conquered by him. He also realised that such administrators could not be found among his Mongol people because they were nomads and thus had no experience governing cities. For this purpose Genghis Khan invited a Khitan prince, Chu'Tsai, who worked for the Jin and had been captured by Mongol army after the Jin Dynasty were defeated. Jin had captured power by displacing Khitan. Genghis told Chu'Tsai, who was a lineal descendant of Khitan rulers, that he had avenged Chu'Tsai's forefathers. Chu'Tsai responded that his father served the Jin Dynasty honestly and so did he; he did not consider his own father his enemy, so the question of revenge did not apply. Genghis Khan was very impressed by this reply. Chu'Tsai administered parts of the Mongol Empire and became a confidant of the successive Mongol Khans.

Military

Main article: Mongol military tactics and organization

The Mongol military was one of the most feared and ruthless armies discussed by many historians, chroniclers and writers of the time^[17]. For instance, a person with firsthand experience of the Mongol army's attack said:

For our sins, unknown nations arrived. No one knew their origin or whence they came, or what religion they practiced. That is known only to God, and perhaps to wise men learned in books...These terrible strangers have taken our country, and tomorrow they will take yours if you do not come and help us.

It is widely regarded that Mongol armies were more victorious during the time than other armies by defeating resistances that they found along the way in Central Asia, China, Georgia, Armenia, Rus', Baghdad, Korea, Syria, etc. (see Mongol invasions) before they were defeated and stopped at the Battle of Ayn Jalut. This doesn't mean they weren't defeated at all throughout their existence, but they won most and decisive battles during their prime time particurly against China, East Europe and Middle East. Genghis Khan is widely cited as producing a highly efficient army with remarkable discipline, organization, toughness, dedication, loyalty and military intelligence, in comparison to their enemies. Operating in massive sweeps, extending over dozens of miles, the Mongol army combined shock, mobility and firepower unmatched in land warfare until the modern age. Originally consisting of purely cavalry units, the Mongols learned and absorbed the war technology and strategies of the empires and kingdoms they invaded and conquered. Most notable contribution in their military campaigns was the absorption of Chinese siege warfare and engineers; prior to this the Mongols lacked skills to take walled cities. The Mongol cavalry was more used to the open-space steppe warfare. With the introduction of siege warfare and fighting ships from both China and Korea, the Mongol capability was enhanced greatly.

Organization and background

In contrast to their enemies, almost all Mongols were nomads and had experience in riding and managing horses from a very young age. Mongol military structure was based largely on meritocracy. For example, if a Khan was not fit for military command, the troops would be led by someone with more experience and victories. Genghis refused to divide his troops into different units based on ethnicity. He mixed tribesmen from conquered groups, such as the Tatars and Keraits. This practice fostered a sense of unity and loyalty by reducing the effects of the old tribal affiliations, and by preventing units from developing a separate ethnic or national character. Discipline was strictly maintained, with severe punishments provided for even small infractions. The armies were also divided based on the traditional Inner Asian decimal system in units of 10 (arban), 100 (jaghun), 1,000 (mingghan), and 10,000 (tumen) men.^[18] They were extremely ruthless when in battle based on others' standards (see below). These units of 10s were like a family or close-knit group, every unit of 10 had a leader who reported up to the next level, and men were not allowed to transfer from one unit to another. Discipline was severe: if one member of an arban deserted, all the arban were executed; if the whole arban deserted, the entire jaghun would be executed. Leaders of the tumens were mostly Mongol nobility, or those who had been granted noble status, while the leader of the 100,000 (leader of 10 tumens) was the Khagan himself. The soldiers always took their families with them for battle, such that Hazara people of Afghanistan claim to be Mongol people that moved from Mongolia for a historic campaign .

Mongols in general were hardened to cold, harsh winters. They often preferred to campaign during the winter, to facilitate river crossings. They were also accustomed to travelling great distances in a short time, since their nomadic lifestyle already involved bi-annual migrations from summer to winter pastures. One notable example: the journey from Mongolia to the Caspian sea was considered a hundred days' ride for the army.

Genghis Khan expected unwavering loyalty from his generals, and granted them a great deal of autonomy in making command decisions. Muqali, a trusted general, was given command of the Mongol forces against the Jin Dynasty while Genghis Khan was fighting in Central Asia, and Subutai and Jebe were allowed to pursue the Great Raid into the Caucausus and Kievan Rus, an idea they had presented to the Khagan on their own initiative. The Mongol military also was successful in siege warfare, cutting off resources for cities and towns by diverting certain rivers, taking enemy prisoners and driving them in front of the army, and adopting new ideas, techniques and tools from the people they conquered, particularly in employing Muslim and Chinese siege engines and engineers to aid the Mongol cavalry in capturing cities. Also one of the standard tactics of Mongol military was the commonly practiced feigned retreat to break enemy formations and to lure small enemy groups away from larger group and defended position for ambush and counterattack.

Another important aspect of the military organization of Genghis Khan was the communications and supply route or Yam, adapted from previous Chinese models. Genghis Khan dedicated special attention to this in order to speed up the gathering of military intelligence and official communications. To this end, Yam waystations were established all over the empire.

Division of the Empire into Khanates

Before his death, Genghis Khan divided his empire among his sons Ögedei, Chagatai, Tolui, and Jochi (Jochi's death several months before Genghis Khan meant that his lands were instead split between his sons, Batu and Orda) into several Khanates designed as sub-territories: their Khans were expected to follow the Great Khan, who was, initially, Ögedei.

Following are the Khanates in the way in which Genghis Khan assigned after his death:

• Empire of the Great Khan - Ögedei Khan, as Great Khan, took most of Eastern Asia, including China; this territory later to comprise the Yuan Dynasty under Kubilai Khan.
• Mongol homeland (present day Mongolia, including Karakorum) - Tolui Khan, being the youngest son, received a small territory near the Mongol homeland, following Mongol custom.
• Chagatai Khanate - Chagatai Khan, Genghis Khan's second son, was given Central Asia and northern Iran.
• Blue Horde - Batu Khan, and White Horde - Orda Khan, both were later combined into the Kipchak Khanate, or Khanate of the Golden Horde, under Toqtamysh. Genghis Khan's eldest son, Jochi, had received most of the distant Russia and Ruthenia. Because Jochi died before Genghis Khan, his territory was further split up between his sons. Batu Khan launched an invasion of Russia, and later Hungary and Poland, and crushed several armies before being summoned back by the news of Ögedei's death.

In 1256, during the rule of Ögedei, Hulagu Khan, son of Tolui, was charged with the conquest of the Muslim nations to the southwest of the empire. These included modern day Iran, Iraq, Afghanistan, Azerbaijan, Pakistan, and the new khanate was named the Il-Khanate. Since, after Tolui's death and the accession of his descendants to the office of Great Khan, his ulus were merged with the Yuan Dynasty, the Il-Khanate is considered, along with the Yuan Dynasty, Chagatai Khanate, and the Golden Horde, to be one of the four divisions of the Mongol Empire.

See also:

After Genghis Khan

Contrary to popular belief, Genghis Khan did not conquer all of the areas of Mongol Empire. At the time of his death, the Mongol Empire stretched from the Caspian Sea to the Sea of Japan. The empire's expansion continued for a generation or more after Genghis's death in 1227. Under Genghis's successor Ögedei Khan the speed of expansion reached its peak. Mongol armies pushed into Persia, finished off the Xi Xia and the remnants of the Khwarezmids, and came into conflict with the imperial Song Dynasty of China, starting a war that would last until 1279 and that would conclude with the Mongols gaining control of all of China.

In the late 1230s, the Mongols under Batu Khan started the Mongol invasions of Europe and Russia, reducing most of their principalities to vassalage, and pressed on into Central Europe. In 1241 Mongols under Subutai and Batu Khan defeated the last Polish-German and Hungarian armies in two days that came in for defense at the Battle of Legnica and the Battle of Mohi.

During the 1250s, Genghis's grandson Hulegu Khan, operating from the Mongol base in Persia, destroyed the Abbasid Caliphate in Baghdad as well as the cult of the Assassins. It was rumoured that cult of the Assassins had sent 400 men to kill the Khagan Mongke Khan. The Khagan made this pre-emptive strike at the heart of the Islamic kingdom to make sure that no such assassination would take place. Hulegu Khan, the commander in chief of this campaign, along with his entire army returned to the main Mongol capital Karakorum when he heard of Khagan Mongke Khan's death and left behind just two tumen of soldiers (20,000). A battle between a Mongol army and the Mamluks ensued in modern-day Palestine. Many in the Mamluk army were Turks who had fought the Mongols years before as free men but were defeated and sold via Italian merchants to the Sultan of Cairo. They shared their experiences and were better prepared for Mongol tactics. The Mongol army lost the Battle of Ayn Jalut near modern-day Nazareth. This was the first defeat of the Mongol Empire in which they did not return to seek battle again.^[19]

Mongol armies under Kublai Khan attempted two unsuccessful invasions of Japan in 1274 and 1281 and three unsuccessful invasions of modern-day Vietnam in 1257, 1285 and 1287 AD.

Military destruction and casualties

It has been discussed that Genghis Khan and the Mongols practiced the military doctrine of "surrender or die" against their enemies. There are many sources about the amount of destruction Genghis Khan and his armies caused especially among the people who suffered Mongol conquests particularly the Persians, Russians and Chinese. They usually stress the negative aspects of the Mongol conquests and some modern scholars argue that their historians exaggerate the numbers of deaths and the extent of material destruction. However, such historians produce virtually all the documents available to modern scholars, making it difficult to establish a firm basis for any alternative view. Still, most sources suggest that the greater degree of destruction and the larger number of casualties effected by the Mongol forces is more probable.

Casualties

Generally in military strategy, Genghis Khan and his successors preferred to offer their enemies the chance to surrender under their rule without a resistance and become vassals by sending tribute, accepting residents, contributing troops and supply or face an uncompromising war.

For instance a messenger of Hulagu Khan (grandson of Genghis Khan) delivered a message from him to Baghdad governer before its invasion that

When I lead my army against Baghdad in anger, whether you hide in heaven or in earth, I will bring you down from the spinning spheres. I will toss you in the air like a lion. I will leave no one alive in your realm. I will burn your city, your land and yourself. If you wish to spare yourself and your venerable family, give heed to my advice with the ear of intelligence. If you do not, you will see what God has willed.

Genghis Khan and his successors guaranteed the populace a protection only if they abided by the rules set forth and be obedient, but their policy was widely written in historical documents as causing mass destruction, terror and deaths if there was to be a resistance. For example as one writer David Nicole notes in The Mongol Warlords, "terror and mass extermination of anyone opposing them was a well tested Mongol tactic." If the offer was refused the Mongol leaders would not give an alternative choice but would order massive collective slaughter of the population of resisting cities and destruction of their property. Only the skilled engineers and artists were spared from death and maintained as slaves if they agreed to surrender. Documents written during or just after Genghis Khan's reign say that after a conquest, the Mongol soldiers looted, pillaged and raped while the Khan got the first pick of the beautiful women. Some troops who submitted were incorporated into the Mongol system in order to expand their manpower; this also allowed the Mongols to absorb new technology, manpower, knowledge and skill for use in military campaigns against other possible opponents. These techniques were sometimes used to spread terror and warning to others (see above). He also passed a decree exempting all followers of Taoist religion from paying any taxes. Genghis Khan was by and large tolerant of the multiple religions and there are no cases of him or the Mongols engaging in religious war against people he encountered during the conquests as long as they were obedient. However, all of his campaigns caused wanton and deliberate destruction of places of worship if they resisted.^[20]

There were also instances of mass slaughter even when there was no resistance, especially in Northern China where the vast majority of the population had a long history of accepting nomadic rulers. Many ancient sources described Genghis Khan's conquests as wholesale destruction on an unprecedented scale in their certain geographical regions, and therefore probably causing great changes in the demographics of Asia. For example, over much of Central Asia speakers of Iranian languages were replaced by speakers of Turkic languages. According to the works of Iranian historian Rashid al-Din, the Mongols killed more than 70,000 people in Merv and more than a million in Nishapur. China reportedly suffered a drastic decline in population during 13th and 14th centuries. Before the Mongol invasion, Chinese dynasties reportedly had approximately 120 million inhabitants; after the conquest was completed in 1279, the 1300 census reported roughly 60 million people. Genghis was known to have killed millions of people in northern China, but precisely how many of these deaths are directly attributable to Genghis Khan and his forces or by other causes is unclear and speculative.^[21] About half of the Russian population died during the Mongol invasion of Rus.^[22] The total population of Persia may have dropped from 2,500,000 to 250,000 as a result of mass extermination and famine.^[23] Historians estimate that up to half of Hungary's two million population at that time were victims of the Mongol invasion.^[24]

Property and culture

His campaigns in Northern China, Central Asia and the Middle East caused massive property destruction for those who resisted his invasion according to the regions' historians; however, there are no exact factual numbers available at this time. For example, the cities of Herat, Nishapur, and Samarkand suffered serious devastation by the armies of Genghis Khan.^[25][26] There is a noticeable lack of Chinese literature that has survived from the Jin Dynasty, due to the Mongol conquests.

Controversy

Like other notable conquerors, such as Hernán Cortés, Genghis Khan's portrayal differs from those he conquered, as opposed to those who conquered with him. Additionally, unlike Hitler, whose regime was overthrown, and Napoleon I of France, who was defeated, Genghis Khan was never completely vanquished, and created an empire that evolved into a modern nation. Therefore, there is an entire culture that identifies with Khan as a leader and founder, much as George Washington, Benjamin Franklin, and others are viewed as the “founding fathers” of The United States of America. Genghis Khan is undisputedly both the creator and destroyer of nations, and remains a debatable figure, even to modern scholars.

Positive perception of Genghis Khan

Negative views of Genghis Khan are very persistent with histories written by many different cultures, from various different geographical regions. They often cite the cruelties and destructions brought upon by Mongol armies. However, there are positive aspects to Genghis Khan's conquests. Genghis Khan is credited with bringing the Silk Road under one cohesive political environment. This allowed increased communication and trade between the West, Middle East and Asia by expanding the horizon of all three areas. Some historians have noted that Genghis Khan instituted certain levels of meritocracy in his rule, and was tolerant of different religions. In much of modern-day Turkey, Genghis Khan is looked on as a great military leader, and it is popular for male children to carry his name.

Genghis Khan as an icon in Mongolia

Traditionally Genghis Khan had been revered for centuries among his people, largely because of his association with the Mongol culture, political and military organization, and his historic victories in war. He evolved into a larger-than-life figure among the Mongols. During the Mongolian People's Republic period, the Genghis Khan and Mongols topic were heavily and officially suppressed by the existing government, which feared nationalist sentiment in the populace. In 1962, the erection of a monument at his birthplace and a conference held in his honor led to criticism from the Soviet Union, and resulted in the dismissal of Tömör-Ochir, a secretary of the ruling Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party Central Committee.

In the early 1990s, democracy was established in Mongolia, and the memory of Genghis Khan with the Mongolian traditional national identity had a powerful revival. Genghis Khan became the central figure of the national identity. He is now a source of pride for Mongolians with ties to their historic roots. For example, it is not uncommon for Mongolians to refer to Mongolia as "Genghis Khan's Mongolia," to themselves as "Genghis Khan's children," and to Genghis Khan as "father of the Mongols" especially among the younger generation. His name and likeness are endorsed on products, streets, buildings, and other places. His face can be found on everyday commodities, from liquors to the largest denominations of 500, 1000, 5000 and 10,000 Mongolian tögrög (₮). Mongolia's main international airport in the capital Ulaanbaatar has been renamed Chinggis Khaan International Airport, and major Genghis Khan statues have been erected before the parliament^[27] and near Ulaanbaatar. There have been repeated discussions about regulating the use of his name and image to avoid trivialization^[28]. In summary, Mongolians see him as the fundamental figure in the founding of the Mongol nation, and therefore the basis for Mongolia as a country.

Genghis Khan is now widely regarded as one of Mongolia's greatest and most legendary leaders^[29]. He is responsible for the emergence of the Mongols as a political and ethnic identity. He reinforced many Mongol traditions and provided stability and unity during a time of great uncertainty, due to both internal and external factors. He is also given credit for the introduction of the traditional Mongolian script and the creation of the Ikh Zasag, the first written Mongolian law. There is a chasm in the perception of his brutality - Mongolians maintain that the historical records written by non-Mongolians are unfairly biased against Genghis Khan; and that his butchery is exaggerated, while his positive role is underrated^[30].

In China

The People's Republic of China considers Genghis Khan to be a Chinese national hero. The rationale for this claim is the fact that there are more ethnic Mongols living inside the PRC than outside, including Mongolia. While Genghis Khan never conquered China, his grandson Kublai Khan completed that conquest, and also had a natural affinity for the people of China proper and their various lifestyles^[31][32], and established a sinicized Yuan Dynasty in which the people of the Chinese nation could claim a de facto empire that stretched from the Yellow Sea to the Black Sea. There has also been much artwork and literature praising him as a great military leader and political genius. The years of the Mongol-established Yuan Dynasty left an indelible imprint on Chinese political and social structures for subsequent generations. However, the legacy of Genghis Khan and his successors who conquered the militarily advanced Chinese dynasties, particularly the Southern Song after 65 years of struggle remains a mixed topic, even to this day.

Recognitions in publications

Genghis Khan is recognized in number of large and popular publications and by other authors, which include the following:

• Genghis Khan is ranked #29 on Michael H. Hart's list of the most influential people in history.
• An article that appeared in the Washington Post on December 31, 1995 selected Genghis Khan as "Man of the Millennium".
• Genghis Khan was nominated for the "Top 10 Cultural Legends of the Millennium" in 1998 by Dr G. Ab Arwel, voted by the five Judges, Prof. D Owain, Mr. G. Parry, OBE, Dr. C Campbell of Oxford University, and Mr S Evans and Sir B. Parry of the International Museum of Culture, Luxembourg.
• National Geographic's 50 Most Important Political Leaders of All Time.

Negative perceptions of Genghis Khan

In Iraq and Iran, he is looked on as a destructive and genocidal warlord who caused enormous damage and destruction.^[33] Similarly, in Afghanistan and Pakistan (along with other non-Turkic Muslim countries) he is viewed unfavorably. It is believed that the Hazara of Afghanistan are descendants of a large Mongol garrison stationed therein. The invasions of Baghdad and Samarkand caused mass murders, such as when portions of southern Khuzestan was completely destroyed. His descendant Hulagu Khan destroyed much of Iran's northern part. Among the Iranian peoples he is regarded as one of the most despised conquerors of Iran, along with Alexander and Tamerlane.^[34][35] In much of Russia, Ukraine, Poland and Hungary, Genghis Khan and his regime are credited with considerable damage and destruction. Presently Genghis Khan, his descendants, his generals, and the Mongol people are remembered for their ferocious and destructive conquests by the region's history books.

In China

It was not until the rise of Communist China that more favorable treatments of him were made by scholars that admired his authoritarian ability to govern China much like the official Communist approval for the methods of the Qin Dynasty, another Chinese dynasty that had formerly been maligned by official scholars.

Claimed descendants study

Main article: Descent from Genghis Khan

Zerjal et al [2003]^[36] identified a Y-chromosomal lineage present in about 8% of the men in a large region of Asia (about 0.5% of the men in the world). The paper suggests that the pattern of variation within the lineage is consistent with a hypothesis that it originated in Mongolia about 1,000 years ago. Such a spread would be too rapid to have occurred by genetic drift, and must therefore be the result of natural selection. The authors propose that the lineage is carried by likely male-line descendants of Genghis Khan, and that it has spread through social selection.

In addition to the Khanates and other descendants, the Mughal emperor Babur's mother was a descendant. Timur, the 14th century military leader, claimed descent from Genghis Khan.

Name and title

There are many theories about the origins of Temüjin's title. Since people of the Mongol nation later associated the name with ching (Mongolian for strength), such confusion is obvious, though it does not follow etymology.

One theory suggests the name stems from a palatalised version of the Mongolian and Turkic word tenggiz, meaning "ocean", "oceanic" or "wide-spreading". (Lake Baikal and ocean were called tenggiz by the Mongols. However, it seems that if they had meant to call Genghis tenggiz they could have said (and written) "Tenggiz Khan", which they did not. Zhèng (Chinese: 正, pron. "jung" in English) meaning "right", "just", or "true", would have received the Mongolian adjectival modifier -s, creating "Jenggis", which in medieval romanization would be written "Genghis". It is likely that contemporary Mongols would have pronounced the word more like "Chinggis". Chingis Khan is the spelling used by the modern Republic of Mongolia.^[37] See Lister and Ratchnevsky, referenced below, for further reading.

While the more accurate Mongolian pronunciation closely matches the romanized spelling of "Chingis" (as well as the sinicized pronunciation), the orgins of "Genghis" as popularly spelled and pronounced in Western media and text. This specific spelling is supposedly derived from the original Persian reports of an invading army, led by a man in 1219 against the Khwarezmid Empire. The Persian people pronounced the man's name "Genghis", as there was no "ch" sound in the Persian tongue. Henceforth, the Persian version of the name of the leader of the Mongol Empire became known and widespread in the Western hemisphere as "Genghis".

According to legend, Temüjin was named after a powerful chief of a rival tribe that his father Yesükhei had defeated. The name "Temüjin" is believed to derive from the Turkic word temur, meaning iron (modern Mongolian: төмөр, tömör). This name would imply skill as a blacksmith, and like any nomad of the time he was familiar, at least partially, with the working of iron for horse-shoeing and weaponry.

More likely, as no evidence has survived to indicate that Genghis Khan had any exceptional training or reputation as a blacksmith, the name indicated an implied lineage in a family once known as blacksmiths. The latter interpretation is supported by the names of Genghis Khan's siblings, Temülin and Temüge, which are derived from the same root word.

Name and spelling variations

Genghis Khan's name is spelled in variety of ways in different languages such as Chinese: 成吉思汗; Pinyin: Chéngjísī Hán, Turkic: Cengiz Han, Chengez Khan, Chinggis Khan, Chinggis Xaan, Chingis Khan, Jenghis Khan, Chinggis Qan, Djingis Kahn etc.). Temüjin is written in Chinese as Simplified Chinese: 铁木真; Traditional Chinese: 鐵木眞; Pinyin: Tiěmùzhēn.

Short timeline

c. 1155-1167—Temüjin born in Hentiy, Mongolia.

c. 1171—Temüjin's father Yesükhei poisoned by the Tatars, leaving him and his family destitute

c. 1184—Temüjin's wife Börte kidnapped by Merkits; calls on blood brother Jamuka and Wang Khan (Ong Khan) for aid, and they rescued her.

c. 1185—First son Jochi born, leading to doubt about his paternity later among Genghis' children, because he was born shortly after Börte's rescue from the Merkits.

1190—Temüjin unites the Mongol tribes, becomes leader, and devises code of law Yassa.

1201—Wins victory over Jamuka's Jadarans.

1202—Adopted as Ong Khan's heir after successful campaigns against Tatars.

1203—Wins victory over Ong Khan's Keraits. Ong Khan himself is killed by accident by allied Naimans.

1204—Wins victory over Naimans (all these confederations are united and become the Mongols).

1206—Jamuka is killed. Temüjin given the title Genghis Khan by his followers in Kurultai (around 40 years of age).

1207-1210—Genghis leads operations against the Western Xia, which comprises much of northwestern China and parts of Tibet. Western Xia ruler submits to Genghis Khan. During this period, the Uyghurs also submit peacefully to the Mongols and became valued administrators throughout the empire.

1211—After kurultai, Genghis leads his armies against the Jin Dynasty that ruled northern China.

1215—Beijing falls, Genghis Khan turns to west and the Khara-Kitan Khanate.

1219-1222—Conquers Khwarezmid Empire.

1226—Starts the campaign against the Western Xia for forming coalition against the Mongols, being the second battle with the Western Xia.

1227—Genghis Khan dies leading fight against Western Xia. How he died is uncertain, although legend states that he was thrown off his horse in the battle, and contracted a deadly fever soon after.

Notes

External links

• Book Review of Genghis Khan by Leo De Hartog
• Genghis Khan and Successors.
• Genghis Khan and the Mongols
• Welcome to The Realm of the Mongols
• Parts of this biography were taken from the Area Handbook series at the Library of Congress
• Coverage of Temüjin's Earlier Years
• Estimates of Mongol warfare casualties
• Genghis Khan on the Web (directory of some 250 resources)
• Mongol Arms
• LeaderValues
• ‘Ala’ al-Din ‘Ata Malik Juvayni (A History of the World-Conqueror Ghengis Genghis Khan, Ata al-Mulk Juvayni and Rashid al-Din Hamadani)
• iExplore.com: The search for the missing tomb of Genghis Khan
• BBC Radio 4 programme "In Our Time", topic was "Genghis Khan", 1 February 2007. With Peter Jackson, Professor of Medieval History at Keele University, Naomi Standen, Lecturer in Chinese History at Newcastle University, and George Lane, Lecturer in History at the School of Oriental and African Studies and presented by Melvyn Bragg.

References

• Brent, Peter. The Mongol Empire: Genghis Khan: His Triumph and his Legacy. Book Club Associates, London. 1976.
• Weatherford, Jack. Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World (New York : Crown, 2004) ISBN 0-609-61062-7.
• Kennedy, Hugh. Mongols, Huns & Vikings (London : Cassell, 2002) ISBN 0-304-35292-6.
• Genghis Khan and the Mongols. Genghis Khan and the Mongols. Retrieved on June 30, 2005.
• Man, John. Genghis Khan : Life, Death and Resurrection (London; New York : Bantam Press, 2004) ISBN 0-593-05044-4.
• Lister, R. P. Genghis Khan (Lanham, Md. : Cooper Square Press, 2000 [c1969]) ISBN 0-8154-1052-2.
• Eric Jameson professeur of ancient Asian rulers at Harvard
• Mongol Arms. Mongol Arms. Retrieved on June 24, 2003.
• Heirs to Discord: The Supratribal Aspirations of Jamuka, Toghrul, and TemüjinPDF
• Ratchnevsky, Paul. Genghis Khan: His Life and Legacy [Čingis-Khan: sein Leben und Wirken] (Oxford, UK ; Cambridge, Mass., USA : B. Blackwell, 1992, c1991) tr. & ed. Thomas Nivison Haining, ISBN 0-631-16785-4.
• Bretschneider, Emilii. Mediæval Researches from Eastern Asiatic Sources. London: K. Paul, Trench, Trübner & Co. ISBN 81-215-1003-1. 
• History of the Mongol Conquests, JJ Saunders, U. Pennsylvania Press, 1972
• Genocide: A Critical Bibliographic Review edited by Israel W Charney, 1994
• Final Solutions: Mass Killing and Genocide in the Twentieth Century by Benjamin A Valentino
• Zerjal, Xue, Bertorelle, Wells, Bao, Zhu, Qamar, Ayub, Mohyuddin, Fu, Li, Yuldasheva, Ruzibakiev, Xu, Shu, Du, Yang, Hurles, Robinson, Gerelsaikhan, Dashnyam, Mehdi, Tyler-Smith (2003). "The Genetic Legacy of the Mongols". The American Journal of Human Genetics (72): 717-721;. 
• De Hartog, Leo (1988). Genghis Khan: Conqueror of the World. London, UK: I.B. Tauris & Co. Ltd.. 
• Morgan, David (1986). The Mongols (Peoples of Europe). Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 0-631-17563-6. 

Primary sources

• Juvaynī, Alā al-Dīn Atā Malik, 1226-1283. Genghis Khan: The History of the World-Conqueror [Tarīkh-i jahāngushā. English] (Seattle : UWashington Press, 1997) tr. John Andrew Boyle, ISBN 0-295-97654-3.
• The Secret History of the Mongols (Leiden; Boston : Brill, 2004) tr. Igor De Rachewiltz, Brill's Inner Asian Library. v.7, ISBN 90-04-13159-0.
• A Compendium of Chronicles: Rashid al-Din's Illustrated History of the World Jami' al-Tawarikh (Oxford : Oxford University Press, 1995) The Nasser D. Khalili Collection of Islamic Art, Vol. XXVII, ed. Sheila S. Blair, ISBN 0-19-727627-X.
• Tabib, Rashid al-Din. The Successors of Genghis Khan (New York : Columbia University Press, 1971) tr. from the Persian by John Andrew Boyle, [extracts from Jami’ Al-Tawarikh], UNESCO collection of representative works: Persian heritage series, ISBN 0-231-03351-6.http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=109217551

Further reading

• Cable, Mildred and Francesca French. The Gobi Desert (London: Landsborough Publications, 1943).
• Lamb, Harold, Genghis Khan: The Emperor of All Men, 1927.
• Man, John. Gobi : Tracking the Desert (London : Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1997) hardbound; (London : Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1998) paperbound, ISBN 0-7538-0161-2; (New Haven: Yale, 1999) hardbound.
• Stewart, Stanley. In the Empire of Genghis Khan: A Journey among Nomads (London: Harper Collins, 2001) ISBN 0-00-653027-3.
• History Channel's biography of Genghis Khan
• Secret History of the Mongols: The Origin of Chingis Khan (expanded edition) (Boston: Cheng & Tsui Asian Culture Series, 1998) adapted by Paul Kahn, ISBN 0-88727-299-1.

Genghis Khan House of Borjigin (Боржигин) (1206-1402) Born: 1162 Died: 1227
Preceded by Position Established	Khagan of Mongol Empire 1206-1227	Succeeded by The Ögedei Khan

	Khagans of Mongol Empire
Genghis Khan (1206-1227) | Tolui Khan (regent) (1227-1229) | gedei Khan (1229-1241) | Tregene Khatun (regent) (1241-1245) | Gyk Khan (1246-1248) | Mngke Khan (1251-1259) | Khublai Khan (1260-1294)

•  • [ e] Mongol Empire
Politics, organization and daily life	Military Campaigns		People		Terms
Organization of state under Genghis Khan Mongol military tactics and organization Daily Life in the Mongol Empire Khanates Ilkhanate Chagatai Khanate Golden Horde Yuan Dynasty Notable cities Karakorum Samarkand Sarai Batu Sarai Berke Tabriz Dadu Bolghar Bukhara Ukek Majar Azaq Saray-Jk Xacitarxan		Asia 1205–1209 Western China 1211–1234 Northern China 1218–1220 Khwarezm 1231-1259 Korea 1243 Anatolia 1251–1259 Persia, Syria and Mesopotamia (Timur) 1257 Vietnam (first) 1258 Baghdad 1259 Syria (first) 1274 Japan (first) 1277 Myanmar (first) 1279 Southern China 1281 Syria (second) 1281 Japan (second) 1284 Vietnam (second) 1287 Myanmar (second) 1287 Vietnam (third) 1292 India (first) 1293 Java 1297 India (second) 1299 India (third) 1299 Syria (third) 1300-1301 Syria (fourth) 1304 Syria (fifth) Europe 1220-1222 Georgians and the Cumans of the Caucasus 1222-1223 the Kuban, Astrakhan, Russia, Ukraine 1223 Volga Bulgaria (first) 1236 Volga Bulgaria (second) 1237-1238 Russia 1239-1240 Ukraine 1241 Hungary, Poland, Bohemia, Austria 1242 Bulgaria 1258-1259 Halych-Volynia 1259 Lithuania and Poland 13th, 14th and 15th punitive mongol-tatars raids in Russia 1287 Poland		Emperors and rulers Genghis Khan Brte gedei Khan Tolui Khan Tregene Khatun Gyk Khan Mngke Khan Kublai Khan Prominent military generals Subutai Jebe Muqali Bo'orchu Borokhul Jelme Chilaun Khubilai Guo Kan Kadan Burundai Nogai Khan		Titles Khagan Khan and Khatan Jinong Khong Tayiji Political and military terms Yam Pax Mongolica Yassa Kurultai Nerge Mangudai Tumen

•  • [ e] List of Emperors of the Yuan Dynasty
Prior to conquest of Southern Song Dynasty Genghis Khan Tolui gedei Khan Gyk Khan

Persondata
NAME	Genghis Khan
ALTERNATIVE NAMES	Temüjin
SHORT DESCRIPTION	Founder of the Mongol Empire
DATE OF BIRTH	c. 1162
PLACE OF BIRTH	in Khentii Province in Mongolia
DATE OF DEATH	August 18 1227
PLACE OF DEATH	Western Xia