Information about Amphetamines
Amphetamine or Amfetamine(Alpha-Methyl-PHenEThylAMINE), also known as beta-phenyl-isopropylamine and benzedrine, is a prescription stimulant commonly used to treat Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in adults and children. It is also used to treat symptoms of traumatic brain injury and the daytime drowsiness symptoms of narcolepsy and chronic fatigue syndrome. Initially it was more popularly used to diminish the appetite and to control weight. Brand names of the drugs that contain Amphetamine include Adderall and Dexedrine. The drug is also used illegally as a recreational club drug and as a performance enhancer. The term "Amphetamine" may also refer to the class of compounds derived from Amphetamine, often referred to as the Substituted Amphetamines.
The related compound methamphetamine was first synthesized from ephedrine in Japan in 1919 by chemist Akira Ogata via reduction of ephedrine using red phosphorus and iodine. The German military was notorious for their use of methamphetamine in World War Two. The German pharmaceutical Pervitin is an oral pill of 3mg which was made available in 1938, but by mid-1941 it became a controlled substance, reportedly because of the amount of time needed for a soldier to rest and recover after use. Military doctors were then given guidelines on how they should issue it.
In 1997[3] and 1998,[4] researchers at Texas A&M University reported finding amphetamine and methamphetamine in the foliage of two Acacia species native to Texas, A. berlandieri and A. rigidula. Previously, both of these compounds had been thought to be human inventions.[5]
At first, the medical drug came in the racemic salt d, l-amphetamine sulfate (racemic amphetamine contains levo- and dextro-form in equal amounts). Today, dextroamphetamine sulfate is the predominant form of the drug used; it consists entirely of the d-isomer. Attention disorders are often treated using Adderall or a generic equivalent, a formulation of mixed amphetamine salts that contain both d/l-amphetamine and d-amphetamine in the sulfate and saccharate forms mixed to a final ratio of 3 parts d-amphetamine to 1 part l-amphetamine.
Amphetamine and other amphetamine-type stimulants principally act to release dopamine into the synaptic cleft. Amphetamine has been shown to both diffuse through the intracellular membrane and travel via the Dopamine Transporter (DAT) to increase concentrations of amphetamine in the neuronal terminal. The increased amphetamine concentration releases endogenous stores of dopamine from Vesicular Monoamine Transporters (VMATs), thereby increasing intra-neuronal concentrations of transmitter. This increase in concentration effectively reverses transport of dopamine via the (DAT) into the synapse.[6] In addition, amphetamine binds reversibly to the dopamine transporter (DAT) and blocks the transporter's ability to clear DA from the synaptic space. Amphetamine also acts in this way with norepinephrine (noradrenaline) and to a lesser extent serotonin.
Research published in the Journal of Pharmacology And Experimental Therapeutics (2007),[7] indicates that amphetamine binds to a group of receptors called TrAce Amine Receptors (TAAR). TAAR are a newly discovered receptor system which seems to be affected by a range of amphetamine-like substances called trace amines.
Along with methylphenidate (Ritalin, Concerta, etc.), amphetamine is one of the standard treatments for ADHD. Beneficial effects for ADHD can include improved impulse control, improved concentration, decreased sensory overstimulation, and decreased irritability. These effects can be dramatic, particularly in young children. The ADHD medication Adderall is composed of four different amphetamine salts, and Adderall XR is a timed-release formulation of these same salt forms.
When used within the recommended doses, side-effects like loss of appetite tend to decrease over time. However, amphetamines last longer in the body than methylphenidate (Ritalin, Concerta, etc.), and tend to have stronger side-effects on appetite and sleep.
Amphetamines are also a standard treatment for narcolepsy, as well as other sleeping disorders. They are generally effective over long periods of time without producing addiction or physical dependence.
Amphetamines are sometimes used to augment anti-depressant therapy in treatment-resistant depression.
Medical use for weight loss is still approved in some countries, but is regarded as obsolete and dangerous in others.
Amphetamine is used by some professional athletes for its strong stimulant effect. Energy levels are dramatically increased and sustained, allowing for more vigorous and longer play. This practice can be extremely dangerous, and some athletes have died as a result. Amphetamine use was common among Major League Baseball (MLB) athletes and were commonly known by the slang term "greenies" due to the pills' color. In 2006, MLB banned the use of amphetamines; and the ban is enforced by periodic drug-testing, with serious consequences if a player tests positive.
Some truck drivers, especially long haul drivers, take amphetamine to combat symptoms of somnolence and to increase their concentration on driving.
These combined effects rapidly increase the concentrations of the respective neurotransmitters in the synaptic cleft, which promotes nerve impulse transmission in neurons that have those receptors.
Because of the abuse of amphetamines in the U.S., most brands were discontinued by the 1990s, including the highly-abused brand names Biphetamine (known as black beauties) and Preludin known on the street as Bams, whose coating was peeled and then injected. Only a few brands of amphetamines are still produced in the United States: those prescribed for narcolepsy, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, treatment-resistant depression, and extreme obesity.
Where the strength of the drug is unknown, users are encouraged to try a small amount first to gauge the strength, to minimize the risks of overdose. For the same reason, the use of two or more drugs at the one time is discouraged. Users are also discouraged from using amphetamines by themselves, as friends can assist in the event of an overdose or amphetamine psychosis.
Amphetamine users that choose to inject should always use new needles and syringes where possible, and not share these with other users. Governments that support a harm-reduction approach often supply new needles and syringes on a confidential basis, as well as education on proper filtering prior to injection, safer injection techniques, and safe disposal of used injecting gear.
..... Read more.
History
Amphetamine was first synthesized in 1887 by Lazar Edeleanu at the University of Berlin. He named the compound phenylisopropylamine. It was one of a series of compounds related to the plant derivative ephedrine, which had been isolated from Ma-Huang that same year by Nagayoshi Nagai. No pharmacological use was found for amphetamine until 1927, when pioneer psychopharmacologist Gordon Alles resynthesized it.[1][2] Alles was part of a group of researchers looking for an ephedrine substitute. In 1937, it became available in tablet form. During World War II it was extensively used to combat fatigue and increase alertness in soldiers. After decades of reported abuse, the FDA banned Benzedrine inhalers, and limited amphetamines to prescription use in 1965, but illegal use became common. Amphetamine became a schedule II drug in 1970.The related compound methamphetamine was first synthesized from ephedrine in Japan in 1919 by chemist Akira Ogata via reduction of ephedrine using red phosphorus and iodine. The German military was notorious for their use of methamphetamine in World War Two. The German pharmaceutical Pervitin is an oral pill of 3mg which was made available in 1938, but by mid-1941 it became a controlled substance, reportedly because of the amount of time needed for a soldier to rest and recover after use. Military doctors were then given guidelines on how they should issue it.
In 1997[3] and 1998,[4] researchers at Texas A&M University reported finding amphetamine and methamphetamine in the foliage of two Acacia species native to Texas, A. berlandieri and A. rigidula. Previously, both of these compounds had been thought to be human inventions.[5]
Chemistry
Amphetamine is a chiral compound. The racemic mixture can be divided into its optical antipodes: levo- and dextro-amphetamine. Amphetamine is the parent compound of its own structural class, comprising a broad range of psychoactive derivatives, e.g., MDMA (Ecstasy) and the N-methylated form, methamphetamine. Amphetamine is a homologue of phenethylamine.At first, the medical drug came in the racemic salt d, l-amphetamine sulfate (racemic amphetamine contains levo- and dextro-form in equal amounts). Today, dextroamphetamine sulfate is the predominant form of the drug used; it consists entirely of the d-isomer. Attention disorders are often treated using Adderall or a generic equivalent, a formulation of mixed amphetamine salts that contain both d/l-amphetamine and d-amphetamine in the sulfate and saccharate forms mixed to a final ratio of 3 parts d-amphetamine to 1 part l-amphetamine.
Pharmacology
Amphetamine, both as d-amphetamine (dextroamphetamine) and l-amphetamine (or a racemic mixture of the two isomers), is believed to exert its effects by binding to the monoamine transporters and increasing extracellular levels of the biogenic amines dopamine, norepinephrine (noradrenaline) and serotonin. It is hypothesized that d-amphetamine acts primarily on the dopaminergic systems, while l-amphetamine is comparatively norepinephrinergic (noradrenergic). The primary reinforcing and behavioral-stimulant effects of amphetamine, however, are linked to enhanced dopaminergic activity, primarily in the mesolimbic dopamine system.Amphetamine and other amphetamine-type stimulants principally act to release dopamine into the synaptic cleft. Amphetamine has been shown to both diffuse through the intracellular membrane and travel via the Dopamine Transporter (DAT) to increase concentrations of amphetamine in the neuronal terminal. The increased amphetamine concentration releases endogenous stores of dopamine from Vesicular Monoamine Transporters (VMATs), thereby increasing intra-neuronal concentrations of transmitter. This increase in concentration effectively reverses transport of dopamine via the (DAT) into the synapse.[6] In addition, amphetamine binds reversibly to the dopamine transporter (DAT) and blocks the transporter's ability to clear DA from the synaptic space. Amphetamine also acts in this way with norepinephrine (noradrenaline) and to a lesser extent serotonin.
Research published in the Journal of Pharmacology And Experimental Therapeutics (2007),[7] indicates that amphetamine binds to a group of receptors called TrAce Amine Receptors (TAAR). TAAR are a newly discovered receptor system which seems to be affected by a range of amphetamine-like substances called trace amines.
Medicinal use
Indicated for:
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Contraindications:
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Side effects:
Cardiovascular:
Ear, nose, and throat:
Eye:
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When used within the recommended doses, side-effects like loss of appetite tend to decrease over time. However, amphetamines last longer in the body than methylphenidate (Ritalin, Concerta, etc.), and tend to have stronger side-effects on appetite and sleep.
Amphetamines are also a standard treatment for narcolepsy, as well as other sleeping disorders. They are generally effective over long periods of time without producing addiction or physical dependence.
Amphetamines are sometimes used to augment anti-depressant therapy in treatment-resistant depression.
Medical use for weight loss is still approved in some countries, but is regarded as obsolete and dangerous in others.
Performance-enhancing use
Amphetamine is commonly used by college and sometimes high-school students as a study and test-taking aid. Amphetamine increases energy levels, concentration, and motivation, allowing students to study for an extended period of time, much longer than one would be capable of doing so on his own. Some students may also take it the day of the test. Most students use it only during final examinations, but some use it on a much more regular basis, which can lead to psychological and physical addiction.Amphetamine is used by some professional athletes for its strong stimulant effect. Energy levels are dramatically increased and sustained, allowing for more vigorous and longer play. This practice can be extremely dangerous, and some athletes have died as a result. Amphetamine use was common among Major League Baseball (MLB) athletes and were commonly known by the slang term "greenies" due to the pills' color. In 2006, MLB banned the use of amphetamines; and the ban is enforced by periodic drug-testing, with serious consequences if a player tests positive.
Some truck drivers, especially long haul drivers, take amphetamine to combat symptoms of somnolence and to increase their concentration on driving.
Effects of use
Amphetamines release stores of norepinephrine and dopamine from nerve endings by converting the respective molecular transporters into open channels. Amphetamine also releases stores of serotonin from synaptic vesicles when taken in relatively high doses. This effect is more pronounced in methamphetamine use. Like methylphenidate (Ritalin), amphetamines also prevent the monoamine transporters for dopamine and norepinephrine from recycling them (called reuptake inhibition), which leads to increased amounts of dopamine and norepinephrine in synaptic clefts.These combined effects rapidly increase the concentrations of the respective neurotransmitters in the synaptic cleft, which promotes nerve impulse transmission in neurons that have those receptors.
Physical effects
- Short-term physiological effects vary greatly, depending on dosage used and the method in which the drug is taken. At therapeutic levels, these effects could include decreased appetite, increased stamina and physical energy, increased (in some cases decreased) sexual drive/response and in some cases bruxism (teeth-grinding). When the drug is abused, effects could include involuntary bodily movements, hyperhidrosis, hyperactivity, jitteriness, psychomotor agitation, nausea, itchy, blotchy or greasy skin, tachycardia, irregular heart rate, hypertension, and headaches. Fatigue can often follow the dose's period of effectiveness. Overdose can be treated with chlorpromazine.[8]
- Long-term abuse or overdose effects can include tremor, restlessness, changed sleep patterns, anxiety and increase in pre-existing anxiety, poor skin condition, hyperreflexia, tachypnea, gastrointestinal narrowing, and weakened immune system. Fatigue and depression can follow the excitement stage. Erectile dysfunction, heart problems, stroke, and liver, kidney and lung damage can result from prolonged abuse. When insufflated, amphetamine can lead to a deterioration of the lining of the nostrils.
Psychological effects
- Short-term psychological effects of the drug at therapeutic levels could include alertness, euphoria, increased concentration, rapid talking, increased confidence, and increased social responsiveness. Effects of the drug when abused could include, nystagmus (eye wiggles), hallucinations, and loss of REM sleep the night after use.
- Long-term amphetamine abuse can induce psychological effects that include insomnia, mental states resembling schizophrenia, aggressiveness (not associated with schizophrenia), addiction or dependence with accompanying withdrawal symptoms, irritability, confusion, and panic. Chronic and/or extensively-continuous use can lead to amphetamine psychosis, which causes delusions and paranoia, but this is uncommon when taken as prescribed. The abuse of an amphetamine is highly addictive, and, with chronic abuse, tolerance develops very quickly. Withdrawal, although not physiologically threatening, is an unpleasant experience (including paranoia, depression, difficult breathing, dysphoria, gastric fluctuations and/or pain, and lethargia). This commonly leads chronic users to re-dose amphetamine frequently, explaining tolerance and increasing the possibility of addiction.
Addiction
Tolerance is developed rapidly in amphetamine abuse, therefore increasing the amount of the drug that is needed to satisfy the addiction.[9] Many abusers will repeat the amphetamine cycle by taking more of the drug during the withdrawal. This leads to a very dangerous cycle and may involve the use of other drugs to get over the withdrawal process. Chronic abusers of amphetamines typically snort or resort to drug injection to experience the full effects of the drug in a faster and more intense way, with the added risks of infection, vein damage, and higher risk of overdose. While continuous dosing with amphetamine causes tolerance, intermittent use can produce "reverse tolerance" or sensitization to some psychological effects.[10][11][12][13][14] As a result, regular use commonly results in a quick decrease of unwanted side-effects, but without an equivalent loss of its stimulant properties. As a note, the sensitization is induced more quickly, and persists far longer than withdrawal-related effects, suggesting a phenomenon more complex than a simple tolerance-induced withdrawal syndrome.Because of the abuse of amphetamines in the U.S., most brands were discontinued by the 1990s, including the highly-abused brand names Biphetamine (known as black beauties) and Preludin known on the street as Bams, whose coating was peeled and then injected. Only a few brands of amphetamines are still produced in the United States: those prescribed for narcolepsy, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, treatment-resistant depression, and extreme obesity.
Harm reduction approach to amphetamine use
Proponents of the harm reduction philosophy seek to minimize the harms that arise from the recreational use of amphetamines. Safer means of taking the drug — smoked, nasal, oral, and rectal — are encouraged due to the lower risk of overdose, infection, and contraction of bloodborne viruses associated with drug injection. Smoking drugs reveals their effects roughly as fast as injection, as blood directly picks up the drug at the lungs. Amphetamine, in contrast to methamphetamine, is not smokable.Where the strength of the drug is unknown, users are encouraged to try a small amount first to gauge the strength, to minimize the risks of overdose. For the same reason, the use of two or more drugs at the one time is discouraged. Users are also discouraged from using amphetamines by themselves, as friends can assist in the event of an overdose or amphetamine psychosis.
Amphetamine users that choose to inject should always use new needles and syringes where possible, and not share these with other users. Governments that support a harm-reduction approach often supply new needles and syringes on a confidential basis, as well as education on proper filtering prior to injection, safer injection techniques, and safe disposal of used injecting gear.
Legal issues
- In the United Kingdom, amphetamines were regarded as Class B drugs. The maximum penalty for unauthorised possession is five years in prison and an unlimited fine. The maximum penalty for illegal supply is fourteen years in prison and an unlimited fine.Methamphetamine has recently been reclassified to Class A, penalties for possession of which are more severe (7 years in prison and an unlimited fine).[15]
- In the United States, amphetamine and methamphetamine are Schedule II drugs, classified as CNS (Central Nervous System) Stimulants.[16] A Schedule II drug is classified as one that has a high potential for abuse, has a currently-accepted medical use and is used under severe restrictions, and has a high possibility of severe psychological and physiological dependence.
)
A chart comparing the chemical structures of different
Books
- Seabrook, Jeremy (1996). In the Cities of the South: scenes from a developing world. London; New York: Verso. ISBN 1-85984-986-5.
Related pages
- Adderall
- Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
- Benzylpiperazine
- Clandestine chemistry
- Ethylamphetamine
- Dextroamphetamine (Dexedrine)
- Methamphetamine (Desoxyn)
- Methylphenidate (Ritalin, Concerta)
- Phenethylamines
- Propylamphetamine
- Psychostimulants
- Eugeroic
- Adrafinil
- Modafinil
References and Notes
1. ^ Shulgin, Alexander; Shulgin, Ann (1992). "6 – MMDA", PiHKAL. Berkeley, California: Transform Press, 39. ISBN 0-9630096-0-5.PiHKAL&rft.atitle=6%20%26ndash%3B%20MMDA&rft.aulast=Shulgin&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rft.date=1992&rft.pub=Transform%20Press&rft.place=Berkeley,%20California&rft.pages=39&rft.isbn=0-9630096-0-5">
2. ^ (April 2005) "meth – Anatomy of a designer drug". Massey University Alumni Magazine (18): 12. Retrieved on 2007-06-23. “But amphetamine's pharmacological potential was missed, and the molecule lapsed into obscurity until 1927, when it was resynthesised by Gordon Alles, one of a group of chemists looking for an ephedrine substitute. Alles also prepared amphetamine in a volatile form. In 1932 it became available under the brand name Benzedrine as an over-the-counter inhaler to treat respiratory problems – and the contents were widely used for purposes other than the treatment of respiratory disorders.
3. ^ Clement, Beverly A., Goff, Erik Allen Burt, Christina M. and Forbes, T. David A. (1997). Toxic amines and alkaloids from Acacia berlandieri. Phytochemistry 46(2), pp 249-254
4. ^ Clement, Beverly A., Goff, Christina M. and Forbes, T. David A. (1998). Toxic amines and alkaloids from Acacia rigidula. Phytochemistry 49(5), pp 1377-1380
5. ^ Ask Dr. Shulgin Online: Acacias and Natural Amphetamine
6. ^ Sulzer, D., (2005). Mechanisms of neurotransmitter release by amphetamines: A review. Progress in Neurobiology, 75(6);406-433.
7. ^ jpet.aspetjournals.org
8. ^ rxlist.com
9. ^ Amphetamines: Drug Use and Abuse: Merck Manual Home Edition (html). Merck. Retrieved on February 28, 2007 .
10. ^ Leith N, Kuczenski R (1981). "Chronic amphetamine: tolerance and reverse tolerance reflect different behavioral actions of the drug. some people often resort to strange ways of using amphetamines, including inserting it into the rectum, which helps the drug enter the blood stream faster and more effectively, and mixing it with drinks like tea and coffee.". Pharmacol Biochem Behav 15 (3): 399-404. PMID 7291243.
11. ^ Chaudhry I, Turkanis S, Karler R (1988). "Characteristics of "reverse tolerance" to amphetamine-induced locomotor stimulation in mice.". Neuropharmacology 27 (8): 777-81. PMID 3216957.
12. ^ [1]
13. ^ Sax KW, Strakowski SM (2001). "Behavioral sensitization in humans". J Addict Dis. 20 (3): 55-65. PMID 11681593.
14. ^ I. Boileau, A. Dagher, M. Leyton, R. N. Gunn, G. B. Baker, M. Diksic and C. Benkelfat (2006). "Modeling Sensitization to Stimulants in Humans: An [11C]Raclopride/Positron Emission Tomography Study in Healthy Men". Arch Gen Psychiatry 63 (12): 1386-1395.
15. ^
16. ^ Trends in Methamphetamine/Amphetamine Admissions to Treatment: 1993-2003 (html). Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Retrieved on February 28, 2007.
17. ^ List of psychotropic substances under international control (PDF). International Narcotics Control Board. Retrieved on November 19, 2005.
2. ^ (April 2005) "meth – Anatomy of a designer drug". Massey University Alumni Magazine (18): 12. Retrieved on 2007-06-23. “But amphetamine's pharmacological potential was missed, and the molecule lapsed into obscurity until 1927, when it was resynthesised by Gordon Alles, one of a group of chemists looking for an ephedrine substitute. Alles also prepared amphetamine in a volatile form. In 1932 it became available under the brand name Benzedrine as an over-the-counter inhaler to treat respiratory problems – and the contents were widely used for purposes other than the treatment of respiratory disorders.
3. ^ Clement, Beverly A., Goff, Erik Allen Burt, Christina M. and Forbes, T. David A. (1997). Toxic amines and alkaloids from Acacia berlandieri. Phytochemistry 46(2), pp 249-254
4. ^ Clement, Beverly A., Goff, Christina M. and Forbes, T. David A. (1998). Toxic amines and alkaloids from Acacia rigidula. Phytochemistry 49(5), pp 1377-1380
5. ^ Ask Dr. Shulgin Online: Acacias and Natural Amphetamine
6. ^ Sulzer, D., (2005). Mechanisms of neurotransmitter release by amphetamines: A review. Progress in Neurobiology, 75(6);406-433.
7. ^ jpet.aspetjournals.org
8. ^ rxlist.com
9. ^ Amphetamines: Drug Use and Abuse: Merck Manual Home Edition (html). Merck. Retrieved on February 28, 2007 .
10. ^ Leith N, Kuczenski R (1981). "Chronic amphetamine: tolerance and reverse tolerance reflect different behavioral actions of the drug. some people often resort to strange ways of using amphetamines, including inserting it into the rectum, which helps the drug enter the blood stream faster and more effectively, and mixing it with drinks like tea and coffee.". Pharmacol Biochem Behav 15 (3): 399-404. PMID 7291243.
11. ^ Chaudhry I, Turkanis S, Karler R (1988). "Characteristics of "reverse tolerance" to amphetamine-induced locomotor stimulation in mice.". Neuropharmacology 27 (8): 777-81. PMID 3216957.
12. ^ [1]
13. ^ Sax KW, Strakowski SM (2001). "Behavioral sensitization in humans". J Addict Dis. 20 (3): 55-65. PMID 11681593.
14. ^ I. Boileau, A. Dagher, M. Leyton, R. N. Gunn, G. B. Baker, M. Diksic and C. Benkelfat (2006). "Modeling Sensitization to Stimulants in Humans: An [11C]Raclopride/Positron Emission Tomography Study in Healthy Men". Arch Gen Psychiatry 63 (12): 1386-1395.
15. ^
16. ^ Trends in Methamphetamine/Amphetamine Admissions to Treatment: 1993-2003 (html). Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Retrieved on February 28, 2007.
17. ^ List of psychotropic substances under international control (PDF). International Narcotics Control Board. Retrieved on November 19, 2005.
External links
- CID 5826 from PubChem (D-form — dextroamphetamine)
- CID 3007 from PubChem (L-form and D, L-forms)
- CID 32893 from PubChem (L-form — Levamphetamine or L-amphetamine)
- List of 504 Compounds Similar to Amphetamine (PubChem)
- EMCDDA drugs profile: Amphetamine (2007)
- Erowid - Amphetamines
- The Good Drugs Guide - Amphetamines
- Lycaeum - Amphetamines
- SpeedSmart.org: Support for Safe and Successful Stimulant Use
- Drugs.com - Amphetamine
- Asia & Pacific Amphetamine-Type Stimulants Information Centre
Phenethylamines |
|---|
| 2C-B • 2C-C • 2C-D • 2C-E • 2C-I • 2C-N • 2C-T-2 • 2C-T-21 • 2C-T-4 • 2C-T-7 • 2C-T-8 • 3C-E • 4-FMP • Bupropion • Cathine • Cathinone • Clenbuterol • DESOXY • Dextroamphetamine • Methamphetamine • Diethylcathinone • Dimethylcathinone • DOC • DOB • DOI • DOM • bk-MBDB • Dopamine • Br-DFLY • Ephedrine • Epinephrine • Escaline • Fenfluramine • Levalbuterol • Levmetamfetamine • MBDB • MDA • MDMA • MDMC • MDEA • MDPV • Mescaline • Methcathinone • Methylphenidate • Norepinephrine • Phentermine • Salbutamol • Tyramine • Venlafaxine |
Psychoanaleptics: psychostimulants, agents used for ADHD and nootropics (N06B) | |
|---|---|
| Centrally acting sympathomimetics | Amphetamine - Dexamphetamine - Dextromethamphetamine - Methylphenidate - Pemoline - Fencamfamin - Modafinil - Fenozolone - Atomoxetine - Fenetylline |
| Xanthine derivatives | Caffeine - Propentofylline |
| Other psychostimulants and nootropics | Racetams (Piracetam, Oxiracetam, Aniracetam, Pramiracetam) - Meclofenoxate - Pyritinol - Deanol - Fipexide - Citicoline - Pirisudanol - Linopirdine - Nizofenone - Acetylcarnitine - Idebenone - Prolintane - Pipradrol - Adrafinil - Vinpocetine |
Articles about Methamphetamine |
|---|
Methamphetamine • Desoxyn • Yaba (drug) • Methamphetamine and sex • Meth mouth • Party and play • Montana Meth Project • Meth song • Levomethamphetamine • Amphetamine • Image Gallery • Combat Methamphetamine Epidemic Act of 2005 • Methamphetamine Precursor Control Act • Crystal Meth Anonymous
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MeSH D001930
Traumatic brain injury (TBI), traumatic injuries to the brain, also called intracranial injury, or simply head injury, occurs when a sudden trauma causes brain damage.
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Traumatic brain injury (TBI), traumatic injuries to the brain, also called intracranial injury, or simply head injury, occurs when a sudden trauma causes brain damage.
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Narcolepsy
Classification & external resources
ICD-10 G 47.4
ICD-9 347
OMIM 161400
DiseasesDB 8801
eMedicine neuro/522
MeSH D009290
Narcolepsy
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Classification & external resources
ICD-10 G 47.4
ICD-9 347
OMIM 161400
DiseasesDB 8801
eMedicine neuro/522
MeSH D009290
Narcolepsy
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Chronic fatigue syndrome/ myalgic encephalomyelitis
Classification & external resources
ICD-10 G 93.3
ICD-9 780.71
DiseasesDB 1645
MedlinePlus 001244
eMedicine med/3392 ped/2795
MeSH D015673 Chronic fatigue syndrome (
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Classification & external resources
ICD-10 G 93.3
ICD-9 780.71
DiseasesDB 1645
MedlinePlus 001244
eMedicine med/3392 ped/2795
MeSH D015673 Chronic fatigue syndrome (
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Anorectics, anorexigenics or appetite suppressants are drugs that reduce the appetite ("anorectic", from the Greek an- = "not" and oreg- = "extend, reach").
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Adderall is a pharmaceutical psychostimulant comprising mixed amphetamine salts. The drug is used primarily to treat attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and narcolepsy. Adderall has also been used successfully to manage severe cases of treatment-resistant depression.
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Dextroamphetamine is a powerful psychostimulant which produces increased wakefulness, energy and self-confidence in association with decreased fatigue and appetite. It is perhaps the archetypal psychostimulant, and drugs with similar psychoactive properties are often referred to as
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Club drugs are a loosely defined faux-category of recreational drugs which are associated with use at dance clubs, parties, and raves. In particular, these drugs are associated with the rave scene, and tend to have stimulating and/or psychedelic properties.
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The substituted amphetamines are a family of amphetamine-based stimulants, hallucinogens, and other recreational drugs. They each have a methyl group on the alpha carbon, often have methoxy groups on the 2 and 5 carbons, and have variant groups on the 3, 4, and 5 carbons.
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Ephedrine (EPH) is a sympathomimetic amine similar in structure to the synthetic derivatives amphetamine and methamphetamine. Ephedrine is commonly used as a stimulant, appetite suppressant, concentration aid, decongestant and to treat hypotension associated with regional
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Psychopharmacology is the study of drug-induced changes in mood, sensation, thinking, and behavior.[1]
Psychoactive drugs may originate from natural sources such as plants and animals, or from artificial sources such as chemical synthesis in the laboratory.
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Psychoactive drugs may originate from natural sources such as plants and animals, or from artificial sources such as chemical synthesis in the laboratory.
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Ephedrine (EPH) is a sympathomimetic amine similar in structure to the synthetic derivatives amphetamine and methamphetamine. Ephedrine is commonly used as a stimulant, appetite suppressant, concentration aid, decongestant and to treat hypotension associated with regional
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Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is an agency of the United States Department of Health and Human Services and is responsible the safety regulation of most types of foods, dietary supplements, drugs, vaccines, biological medical products, blood products, medical devices,
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Methamphetamine (methylamphetamine or desoxyephedrine), popularly shortened to meth and also nicknamed "ice", is a psychostimulant and sympathomimetic drug.
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Akira Ogata (Ogata Akira, 緒方 章, 1887-1978) was a Japanese chemist and the first to synthesize methamphetamine in its crystalline form in 1919.
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Methamphetamine (methylamphetamine or desoxyephedrine), popularly shortened to meth and also nicknamed "ice", is a psychostimulant and sympathomimetic drug.
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Texas A&M University, often called A&M or TAMU, is a coeducational public research university located in College Station, Texas. It is the flagship institution of the Texas A&M University System.
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Acacia
Miller
Species
About 1,300; see List of Acacia species
Acacia is a genus of shrubs and trees belonging to the subfamily Mimosoideae of the family Fabaceae, first described in Africa by the Swedish botanist Linnaeus in 1773.
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Miller
Species
About 1,300; see List of Acacia species
Acacia is a genus of shrubs and trees belonging to the subfamily Mimosoideae of the family Fabaceae, first described in Africa by the Swedish botanist Linnaeus in 1773.
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State of Texas
Flag of Texas Seal
Nickname(s): Lone Star State
Motto(s): Friendship.
Before Statehood Known as
The Republic of Texas
Official language(s) No official language
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Flag of Texas Seal
Nickname(s): Lone Star State
Motto(s): Friendship.
Before Statehood Known as
The Republic of Texas
Official language(s) No official language
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A. berlandieri
Binomial name
Acacia berlandieri
Benth.
Acacia berlandieri (Berlandier Acacia,
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Binomial name
Acacia berlandieri
Benth.
Range of Acacia berlandieri
Acacia berlandieri (Berlandier Acacia,
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A. rigidula
Binomial name
Acacia rigidula
Benth.
Acacia rigidula is native to Mexico and the southern U.S. (Texas) and is closely related to Acacia berlandieri.
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Binomial name
Acacia rigidula
Benth.
Acacia rigidula is native to Mexico and the southern U.S. (Texas) and is closely related to Acacia berlandieri.
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The term chiral (pronounced /ˈkaɪɹ(ə)l̩/) is used to describe an object that is non-superimposable on its mirror image. In terms of chemistry, such objects are usually molecules.
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In chemistry, a racemic mixture is one that has equal amounts of left- and right-handed enantiomers of a chiral molecule.
The first known racemic mixture, or racemate
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The first known racemic mixture, or racemate
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Dextroamphetamine is a powerful psychostimulant which produces increased wakefulness, energy and self-confidence in association with decreased fatigue and appetite. It is perhaps the archetypal psychostimulant, and drugs with similar psychoactive properties are often referred to as
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In chemistry, a derivative is a compound that is formed from a similar compound or a compound that can be imagined to arise from another compound, if one atom is replaced with another atom or group of atoms.
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MDMA (3,4-methylenedioxy-N-methylamphetamine), most commonly known today by the street name ecstasy, (often abbreviated to E, X, or XTC) is a semisynthetic psychedelic empathogen-entactogen of the phenethylamine family.
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Methamphetamine (methylamphetamine or desoxyephedrine), popularly shortened to meth and also nicknamed "ice", is a psychostimulant and sympathomimetic drug.
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In chemistry, a homologous series is a series of organic compounds with a similar general formula, possessing similar chemical properties due to the presence of the same functional group, and shows a gradation in physical properties as a result of increase in molecular size and
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Phenethylamine, or β-Phenylethylamine, is an alkaloid and monoamine. In the human brain, it is believed to function as a neuromodulator or neurotransmitter (trace amine).
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