Information about Commonwealth Of Nations
Commonwealth of Nations | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| ||||
) Location of the Commonwealth of Nations The Commonwealth of Nations as of 2006 | ||||
| Headquarters (and largest city) | ||||
| Official languages | English | |||
| Membership | 53 sovereign states | |||
| Leaders | ||||
| - | Head of the Commonwealth | Queen Elizabeth II | ||
| - | Secretary-General | Don McKinnon (since 1 April 2000) | ||
| Establishment | ||||
| - | Balfour Declaration | 18 November 1926 | ||
| - | Statute of Westminster | 11 December 1931 | ||
| - | London Declaration | 28 April 1949 | ||
| Population | ||||
| - | 2005 estimate | 1,921,974,000 | ||
| Website thecommonwealth.org | 2 | |||
)
The Commonwealth is an international organisation through which countries with diverse social, political, and economic backgrounds cooperate within a framework of common values and goals, outlined in the Singapore Declaration.[1] These include the promotion of democracy, human rights, good governance, the rule of law, individual liberty, egalitarianism, free trade, multilateralism, and world peace.[2]
Queen Elizabeth II is the current Head of the Commonwealth, recognised by each state, and as such is the symbol of the free association of the organisation's members. This position, however, does not imply political power over Commonwealth member states. In practice, the Queen heads the Commonwealth in a symbolic capacity, and it is the Commonwealth Secretary-General who is the chief executive of the organisation. The Commonwealth is not a political union, and does not allow the United Kingdom to exercise any power over the affairs of the organisation's other members.
Elizabeth II is also the current Head of State, separately, of sixteen members of the Commonwealth, called Commonwealth realms. As each realm is an independent kingdom, Elizabeth II, as monarch, holds a distinct title for each, though, by a Prime Ministers' Conference in 1952, all include the words "Head of the Commonwealth" at the end; for example: Elizabeth the Second, by the Grace of God, Queen of Jamaica and of Her other Realms and Territories, Head of the Commonwealth. Beyond the realms, the majority of the members of the Commonwealth have their own, separate Heads of State: thirty-two members are Commonwealth republics and five members have their own monarchs (Brunei, Lesotho, Malaysia, Swaziland, and Tonga).
Every four years the Commonwealth's members celebrate the Commonwealth Games, the world's second-largest multi-sport event after the Olympic Games.
History
Origins
Although performing a vastly different function, the Commonwealth is the successor of the British Empire. In 1884, whilst visiting Adelaide, South Australia, Lord Rosebery described the changing British Empire, as some of its colonies became more independent, as a "Commonwealth of Nations".Conferences of British and colonial Prime Ministers had occurred periodically since 1887, leading to the creation of the Imperial Conferences in the late 1920s.[3] The formal organisation of the Commonwealth developed from the Imperial Conferences, where the independence of the self-governing colonies and especially of dominions was recognised, particularly in the Balfour Declaration at the Imperial Conference in 1926, when Britain and its dominions agreed they were "equal in status, in no way subordinate one to another in any aspect of their domestic or external affairs, though united by common allegiance to the Crown, and freely associated as members of the British Commonwealth of Nations". This relationship was eventually formalised by the Statute of Westminster in 1931.
Remaining members gain independence
After World War II, the Empire was gradually dismantled, partly owing to the rise of independence movements in the then-subject territories (such as that started in India under the influence of Mahatma Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru, Subhash Chandra Bose, Bhagat Singh, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel and Muhammad Ali Jinnah), and partly owing to the British Government's strained circumstances resulting from the cost of the war. The word "British" was dropped in 1949 from the title of the Commonwealth to reflect the changing position.[4] Myanmar (formerly Burma, 1948), and Aden (1967) are the only former colonies not to have joined the Commonwealth upon independence. Among the former protectorates and mandates, Egypt (independent in 1922), Iraq (1932), Transjordan (1946), Palestine (became in part, the state of Israel in 1948), Sudan (1956), Kuwait (1961), Bahrain (1971), Oman (1971), Qatar (1971), and the United Arab Emirates (1971) never became members of the Commonwealth. The Republic of Ireland left the Commonwealth upon becoming a republic in 1949. However, the Ireland Act 1949 passed by the Parliament of Westminster gave citizens of the Republic of Ireland a status similar to that of other citizens of the Commonwealth in UK law.Members not under the House of Windsor
The issue of countries with constitutional structures that did not operate based on the shared Crown, but who wished to remain members of the Commonwealth, was resolved in April 1949 at a Commonwealth prime ministers' meeting in London. Under the London Declaration, India agreed that when it became a republic in January 1950 it would accept the King as "symbol of the free association of its independent member nations and as such Head of the Commonwealth". The other Commonwealth countries in turn recognised India's continuing membership of the association. (At Pakistan’s insistence, India was not regarded as an exceptional case and it was assumed that other states would be accorded the same treatment as India.) The London Declaration is often seen as marking the beginning of the modern Commonwealth, and following India's precedent, other nations moved to become republics, or constitutional monarchies under a different Royal House.Old, New and White Commonwealth
As the Commonwealth grew, Britain and pre-1945 Dominions (a term formally dropped in the 1940s) became informally known as the "Old Commonwealth", particularly since the 1960s when some of them disagreed with poorer, African and Asian (or New Commonwealth) members about various issues at Commonwealth Heads of Government meetings. Accusations that the old, "White" Commonwealth had different interests from African Commonwealth nations in particular, and charges of racism and colonialism arose during heated debates about Rhodesia in the 1960s and 1970s, the imposition of sanctions against apartheid-era South Africa in the 1980s and, more recently, about whether to press for democratic reforms in Nigeria and then Zimbabwe. The term New Commonwealth is also used in the United Kingdom (especially in the 1960s and 1970s) to refer to recently decolonised countries, which are predominantly non-white and underdeveloped. It was often used in debates about immigration from these countries.In recent years, the term "White Commonwealth" has been used in a derogatory sense to imply that the wealthier, white nations of the Commonwealth had different interests and goals from the non-white, and particularly the African members. Zimbabwean President Robert Mugabe has used the term frequently to allege that the Commonwealth's attempts to force political changes in his country is motivated by racism and colonialist attitudes and that the White Commonwealth dominates the Commonwealth of Nations as a whole.
There have been attempts made by groups such as the United Commonwealth Society to unite the commonwealth and provide closer ties both culturally and economically, starting with the "White Commonwealth" and expanding to include other nations within the commonwealth generally.
Membership
Membership criteria
These criteria were unenforceable for two decades,[6] until, in 1991, the Harare Declaration was issued, dedicating the leaders to applying the Singapore principles to the completion of decolonisation, the end of the Cold War, and the fall of Apartheid in South Africa.[7] The mechanisms by which these principles would be applied were created, and the manner clarified, by the 1995 Millbrook Commonwealth Action Programme, which created the Commonwealth Ministerial Action Group (CMAG), which has the power to rule on whether members meet the requirements for membership under the Harare Declaration.[8] Also in 1995, an Inter-Governmental Group was created to finalise and codify the full requirements for membership. Upon reporting in 1997, as adopted under the Edinburgh Declaration, the Inter-Governmental Group ruled that any future members would have to have a direct constitutional link with an existing member.[9]
In addition to this new rule, the former rules were consolidated into a single document. These requirements, which remain the same today, are that members must:
- accept and comply with the Harare principles.
- be fully sovereign states.
- recognise the monarch of the Commonwealth realms as the Head of the Commonwealth.
- accept the English language as the means of Commonwealth communication.
- respect the wishes of the general population vis-à-vis Commonwealth membership.<ref name="The future of the modern Commonwealth" />
Current members
Countries whose membership is currently suspended are shown in Bold text.Note: The table can be sorted alphabetically or chronologically using the "><" icon.
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1 Left 1987, rejoined 1997, suspended since 2006.
2 Special member status 1968 to 1999, again since 2006.
3 Suspended between 1995 and 1999.
4 Left 1972, rejoined 1989, suspended between 1999 and 2004.
5 Left 1961, rejoined 1994.
2 Special member status 1968 to 1999, again since 2006.
3 Suspended between 1995 and 1999.
4 Left 1972, rejoined 1989, suspended between 1999 and 2004.
5 Left 1961, rejoined 1994.
Member information
World map of the Commonwealth of Nations as of 2006. Current member states are coloured blue.
The total GDP is about US$7.8 trillion (about 16% of the total world economy). The land area of the Commonwealth nations is about 31.5 million km² (12.1 million square miles), or about 21% of the total world land area.
The five largest Commonwealth nations by population are India (1.1 billion), Pakistan (165 million), Bangladesh (148 m), Nigeria (137 m), and the United Kingdom (60 m). Tuvalu is the smallest member, with only 11,000 people.
The three largest Commonwealth nations by area are Canada at 3.8 million square miles, Australia at 3.0 million square miles, and India at 1.2 million square miles.
The largest military spenders are the United Kingdom at GBP£33.4 billion (US$66.8 billion), India at GBP£10.6 billion (US$21 billion), and Australia and Canada at GBP£5.3 billion (US$10.5 billion) respectively. The Commonwealth of Nations is not a military alliance. See: List of countries by military expenditures.
Nauru joined as a Special Member, but was a full member from May 1999 to January 2006 when it reverted back. [11]
)
Flags of the members of the Commonwealth in Horse Guards Road, next to the Foreign and Commonwealth Office, London.
Non-members
Non-applicants
Egypt, Myanmar and Iraq have never shown an interest in joining the Commonwealth, although they are eligible to do so, having histories of British rule. Sudan, Somalia, Eritrea, Bahrain, Kuwait, Jordan and Oman similarly are not members. Other countries with historical links to the United Kingdom or other Commonwealth countries that could theoretically be Commonwealth members, but have shown no indication of a wish to join, include Nepal, Bhutan, Afghanistan, Qatar and the United Arab Emirates.Hong Kong, which became a special administrative region of the People's Republic of China following the end of British rule in 1997, did not join the Commonwealth.
The United States of America, which declared its independence from Britain more than 100 years before Lord Rosebery coined the term Commonwealth of Nations, is not a member.
France secretly considered membership in the 1950s, under the leadership of Prime Minister Guy Mollet. In the context of nationalisation of the Suez Canal, colonial unrest, and increasing tensions between British-backed Jordan and French-backed Israel, Mollet saw a union between Britain and France as a possible solution. A British Government document of the time reported "That the French would welcome a common citizenship arrangement on the Irish basis". The request was turned down by the British prime minister Anthony Eden, along with a request for Commonwealth membership, and a year later France signed the Treaty of Rome with Germany and the other founding nations of the Common Market, later to become the EU. [12]
Current and possible future applicants
Rwanda and Yemen have applied to join the Commonwealth, and there was some interest expressed by the Palestinian National Authority.[13] It has also been suggested that Jordan, Israel (being formerly administered by the United Kingdom), and Algeria might consider joining.[14]Other eligible applicants could come from any of the remaining British overseas territories, Crown dependencies, Australian external territories and Associated States of New Zealand if any later become fully independent.[15] Many such jurisdictions are already directly represented within the Commonwealth, particularly through the Commonwealth Family.[16]
- See also: Commonwealth of Nations membership criteria: Prospective members
Suspension
In recent years the Commonwealth has suspended several members "from the Councils of the Commonwealth" for failure to uphold democratic government. Suspended members are not represented at meetings of Commonwealth leaders and ministers, although they remain members of the organisation.Fiji, which was not a member of the Commonwealth between 1987 and 1997 as a result of a republican coup d'état, was suspended in 2000–2001 after a military coup, as was Pakistan from 1999 until 2004. Fiji was suspended once again following the military coup of December 2006.[17]
Nigeria was suspended between 1995 and 1999.
Zimbabwe was suspended in 2002 over concerns with the electoral and land reform policies of Robert Mugabe's Zanu-PF government, before withdrawing from the organisation in 2003. It had previously been suspended from the Commonwealth under the country's former name of Rhodesia from its unilateral declaration of independence in 1965 until its internationally recognised independence as Zimbabwe in 1980.
Withdrawal
As membership is purely voluntary, member governments can choose at any time to leave the Commonwealth. Pakistan left in 1972 in protest at Commonwealth recognition of breakaway Bangladesh, but rejoined in 1989. Zimbabwe left in 2003 when Commonwealth Heads of Government refused to lift the country's suspension on the grounds of human rights violations and deliberate misgovernment.Other termination
Although Heads of Government have the power to suspend member states from active participation, the Commonwealth has no provision for the expulsion of members. However, Commonwealth realms that become republics automatically cease to be members, unless (like India in 1950) they obtain the permission of other members to remain in the organisation as a republic. The Republic of Ireland left the Commonwealth when it became a republic, on 18 April 1949, after passing the Republic of Ireland Act 1948; because it preceded India's London Declaration, remaining in the Commonwealth was not an option. However, Ireland has not shown interest in being a member of the Commonwealth, as it would be seen as a step back to colonialism by the majority of the population.South Africa was prevented from continuing as a member after it became a republic in 1961, due to hostility from many members, particularly those in Africa and Asia as well as Canada, to its policy of apartheid. The South African government withdrew its application to remain in the organisation as a republic when it became clear at the 1961 Commonwealth Prime Ministers' Conference that any such application would be rejected. South Africa was re-admitted to the Commonwealth in 1994, following the end of apartheid in 1994.
The Maldives left the Commonwealth in 1965 after declaring their independence from the United Kingdom; they were re-admitted to the Commonwealth on 9 July 1982.
The declaration of a republic in the Fiji Islands in 1987, after military coups designed to deny Indo-Fijians political power in Fiji, was not accompanied by application to remain. Commonwealth membership was held to have lapsed until 1997, after racist provisions in the republican constitution were repealed and reapplication for membership made.
Hong Kong was not a member but participated in certain elements as a British colony; these ceased after the 1997 handover of British rule to China.
Objectives and activities
The Commonwealth has long been distinctive as an international forum where highly developed economies (the UK, Australia, Canada, New Zealand) and many of the world's poorer countries seek to reach agreement by consensus. This aim has sometimes been difficult to achieve, as when disagreements over Rhodesia in the late 1960s and 1970s and over apartheid in South Africa in the 1980s led to a cooling of relations between Britain and African members.An important statement of the Commonwealth's principles is the 1991 Harare Declaration, which dedicated the organisation to democracy and good government, and allowed for action to be taken against members who breached these principles. Before then the Commonwealth's collective actions had been limited by the principle of non-interference in the internal affairs of other members.
The organisation is celebrated each year on Commonwealth Day, the second Monday in March.
Benefits of membership
In its early days, the Commonwealth constituted a significant economic bloc. Commonwealth countries accorded each others' goods privileged access to their markets ("Commonwealth Preference"), and there was a free or preferred right of migration from one Commonwealth country to another. These rights have been steadily eroded, but their consequences remain. Within most Commonwealth countries, there are substantial communities with family ties to other members of the Commonwealth, going beyond the effects of the original colonisation of parts of the Commonwealth by settlers from Britain or Ireland. Furthermore, consumers in Commonwealth countries retain many preferences for goods from other members of the Commonwealth, so that even in the absence of tariff privileges, there continues to be more trade within the Commonwealth than might be predicted. On Britain's entry to the European Community, the Lomé Convention preserved some of the preferential access rights of Commonwealth goods to Britain's market.Some Commonwealth countries give Commonwealth citizens privileges that are not accorded to aliens. For example, in Britain the right to vote is given to all Commonwealth citizens resident in that country, one example being Bryan Gould, a New Zealander who was elected as a Labour MP. However, these privileges are largely not reciprocal, and it is up to each country to decide what privileges it accords to Commonwealth citizenship, except for the Commonwealth Scholarship. Other privileges that Britain grants Commonwealth citizens include access to immigration programmes such as the working holidaymaker visa. Some privileges offered by individual countries have eroded over the last few decades, but most countries continue to afford special treatment for immigration (e.g. right of abode in UK for some) and visas. Commonwealth citizens are also eligible to join the British armed forces.
Criticisms
In recent decades there has been a mutual decline of interest in maintaining active intra-Commonwealth relations, and the organisation's direct political and economic importance has declined. Realist critics have argued that in the 21st century the organisation is an inherently arbitrary alliance with members that are united only through a historical accident of British colonialism. They argue that the organisation lacks a balanced membership, and point out that it is very unusual for any international organisation to exclude highly important regions of the world such as most of Western Europe and South America from membership. Indeed, many Commonwealth members look increasingly to regional partners, non-Commonwealth as well as Commonwealth, to form their most important alliances. Such criticisms aside, and however arbitrary the origins of Commonwealth membership, the fact remains that shared legal, economic, and governmental traditions give its members a common outlook that is not always shared with regional partners.Britain has forged closer relationships with other European countries through the European Union; this was widely felt as a betrayal by citizens of the "Old Commonwealth" whose economies had been developed on the assumption of access to British markets. Similarly, former British colonies have forged closer relationships with non-Commonwealth trading partners and closer geographic neighbours. Reaction to immigration from the new Commonwealth countries into Britain in the 1950s and early 1960s led to the restriction of the right of migration. The Commonwealth today mainly restricts itself to encouraging community between nations and to placing moral pressure on members who violate international laws, such as human rights laws, and abandon democratically-elected government. Key activities today include training experts in developing countries and assisting with and monitoring elections.
Structure
Head of the Commonwealth
Commonwealth Secretariat
Based in London, UK, the Secretariat organises Commonwealth summits, meetings of ministers, consultative meetings and technical discussions; it assists policy development and provides policy advice, and facilitates multilateral communication among the member governments. It also provides technical assistance to help governments in the social and economic development of their countries and in support of the Commonwealth’s fundamental political values.
The Secretariat is headed by the Commonwealth Secretary-General who is elected by Commonwealth Heads of Government for no more than two four-year terms. The Secretary-General and two Deputy Secretaries-General direct the divisions of the Secretariat. The present Secretary-General is Donald McKinnon, from New Zealand, who took office on 1 April 2000, succeeding Chief Emeka Anyaoku of Nigeria (1990–2000). The first Secretary-General was Arnold Smith of Canada (1965–75), followed by Sir Shridath Ramphal of Guyana (1975–90).
Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting
Commonwealth Family
Commonwealth Foundation
The Commonwealth Foundation was established by the Heads of Government in 1965. Membership of the Foundation is open to all members of the Commonwealth and currently (as of June 2007) stands at 46 governments out of the 53 member countries. Associate Membership, which is open to associated states or overseas territories of member governments, has been granted to Gibraltar. 2005 saw celebrations for the Foundation's 40th Anniversary. The Foundation is headquartered in Marlborough House, Pall Mall, London, and has no other offices. Regular liaison and cooperation between the Secretariat and the Foundation is in place.
The Foundation continues to serve the broad purposes for which it was established as written in the Memorandum of Understanding:[19]
The purposes and areas of interest of the Foundation will be the administration of funds for increasing interchanges between Commonwealth organizations of the skilled or learned professions or skilled auxiliary occupations in order to maintain and improve standards of knowledge, attainment and conduct; and between non-governmental organisations of a voluntary rather than a strictly professional character throughout the Commonwealth. The Foundation's areas of interest will also extend to include culture, information and the media, rural development, social welfare and the handicapped, and the role of women.
Commonwealth Games
Commonwealth of Learning
Commonwealth Business Council
The CBC acts as a bridge for co-operation between business and government, concentrating efforts on these specific areas:
- Enhancing trade
- Mobilising investment
- Promoting corporate citizenship
- Facilitating ICT for Development
- Public Private Partnerships
In October 2007, the United Kingdom Independence Party is calling for the UK to end its political union with the EU and set up a Free Trade Area with Commonwealth countries.[20]
Commonwealth War Graves Commission
Cultural links
The Commonwealth is also useful as an international organisation that represents significant cultural and historical links between wealthy first-world countries and poorer nations with diverse social and religious backgrounds. The common inheritance of the English language and literature, the common law, and British systems of administration all underpin the club-like atmosphere of the Commonwealth.Mostly due to their history of British rule, many Commonwealth nations share certain identifiable traditions and customs that are elements of a shared Commonwealth culture. Examples include common sports such as cricket and rugby, driving on the left, parliamentary and legal traditions, and the use of British rather than American spelling conventions (see English in the Commonwealth of Nations). None of these are universal within the Commonwealth countries, nor exclusive to them, but all of them are more common in the Commonwealth than elsewhere.
In recent years the Commonwealth model has inspired similar initiatives on the part of France, Spain and Portugal and their respective ex-colonies, and in the former case, other sympathetic governments: the Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie (International Organisation of Francophone Countries), the Comunidad Iberoamericana de Naciones (Organization of Ibero-American States) and the Comunidade dos Países de Língua Portuguesa (Community of Portuguese Language Countries). The Arab League, an association similar to the Commonwealth, was founded in 1945 and whose members and observers (except India) use Arabic as an official language.
Literature
The shared history of British rule has also produced a substantial body of writing in many languages - Commonwealth literature. There is an Association for Commonwealth Literature and Language Studies (ACLALS) with nine chapters worldwide. ACLALS holds an international conference every three years. The 13th Triennial was held in Hyderabad, India, in August 2004; the next will be held in 2007 in Vancouver, Canada from August 17 - 22, 2007.In 1987, the Commonwealth Foundation established the Commonwealth Writers Prize "to encourage and reward the upsurge of new Commonwealth fiction and ensure that works of merit reach a wider audience outside their country of origin." Caryl Phillips won the Commonwealth Writers Prize 2004 for A Distant Shore. Mark Haddon won the Commonwealth Writers' Prize 2004 Best First Book prize worth £3,000 for The Curious Incident of the Dog in the Night-time.
Although not affiliated with the Commonwealth in an official manner, the prestigious Man Booker Prize is awarded annually to an author from a Commonwealth country or the Republic of Ireland. This honour is one of the highest in literature.
See also
- Anglosphere
- British Empire
- British Empire and Commonwealth Museum
- British Overseas Territory
- Commonwealth citizen
- Dominion
- High Commissioner
- List of Commonwealth visits made by Queen Elizabeth II
- Commonwealth realm
- Commonwealth republic
Other organisations
- Arab League
- Commonwealth of Independent States
- Community of Portuguese Language Countries
- La Francophonie
- Organization of Ibero-American States
- French Union (defunct)
- French Community (defunct)
Lists of Commonwealth members
- List of members of the Commonwealth of Nations by continent
- List of members of the Commonwealth of Nations by date joined
- List of members of the Commonwealth of Nations by name
- List of members of the Commonwealth of Nations by population
Footnotes
1. ^ FAQs. Commonwealth Secretariat. Retrieved on 2007-07-25.
2. ^ Singapore Declaration of Commonwealth Principles 1971. Commonwealth Secretariat (22 January 1971). Retrieved on 2007-07-25.
3. ^ History of the Commonwealth.
4. ^ Commonwealth history timelines.
5. ^ de Smith, S.A. (July 1949). "The London Declaration of the Commonwealth Prime Ministers, April 28, 1949". The Modern Law Review 12 (3): pp. 351-4. Retrieved on 2007-07-22.
6. ^ Williams, Paul D. (July 2005). "Blair's Britain and the Commonwealth". The Round Table 94 (380): pp. 381–391.
7. ^ Harare Commonwealth Declaration. Commonwealth Secretariat (20 October 1991). Retrieved on 2007-07-29.
8. ^ Commonwealth Ministerial Action Group. Commonwealth Secretariat. Retrieved on 2007-07-29.
9. ^ te Velde-Ashworth, Victoria (10 October 2005). The future of the modern Commonwealth: Widening vs. deepening? (PDF). Commonwealth Policy Studies Unit. Retrieved on 2007-07-29.
10. ^ Commonwealth membership in focus at London meeting. Commonwealth Secretariat (6 December 2006). Retrieved on 2007-07-29.
11. ^ Special Member status
12. ^ [1]
13. ^ Commonwealth Secretariat reference (1997 Heads of Government meeting communiqué)
14. ^ Several countries seek Commonwealth membership, Secretary-General says. Trinity College, Melbourne (22 March 2005). Retrieved on 2007-07-29.
15. ^ Eligible Areas
16. ^ Baldacchino, Godfrey; Milne, David (September 2006). "Exploring sub-national island jurisdictions: An editorial introduction". The Round Table 95 (386): pp. 487–502.
17. ^ BBC News: Fiji suspended from Commonwealth (8th Dec 2006)
18. ^ The position of Head of the Commonwealth was discussed at the 1997 Edinburgh Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting. The consensus was that the title should remain annexed to the Sovereign.
19. ^ Commonwealth Foundation - About Us, ¶4–5
20. ^ [2]
2. ^ Singapore Declaration of Commonwealth Principles 1971. Commonwealth Secretariat (22 January 1971). Retrieved on 2007-07-25.
3. ^ History of the Commonwealth.
4. ^ Commonwealth history timelines.
5. ^ de Smith, S.A. (July 1949). "The London Declaration of the Commonwealth Prime Ministers, April 28, 1949". The Modern Law Review 12 (3): pp. 351-4. Retrieved on 2007-07-22.
6. ^ Williams, Paul D. (July 2005). "Blair's Britain and the Commonwealth". The Round Table 94 (380): pp. 381–391.
7. ^ Harare Commonwealth Declaration. Commonwealth Secretariat (20 October 1991). Retrieved on 2007-07-29.
8. ^ Commonwealth Ministerial Action Group. Commonwealth Secretariat. Retrieved on 2007-07-29.
9. ^ te Velde-Ashworth, Victoria (10 October 2005). The future of the modern Commonwealth: Widening vs. deepening? (PDF). Commonwealth Policy Studies Unit. Retrieved on 2007-07-29.
10. ^ Commonwealth membership in focus at London meeting. Commonwealth Secretariat (6 December 2006). Retrieved on 2007-07-29.
11. ^ Special Member status
12. ^ [1]
13. ^ Commonwealth Secretariat reference (1997 Heads of Government meeting communiqué)
14. ^ Several countries seek Commonwealth membership, Secretary-General says. Trinity College, Melbourne (22 March 2005). Retrieved on 2007-07-29.
15. ^ Eligible Areas
16. ^ Baldacchino, Godfrey; Milne, David (September 2006). "Exploring sub-national island jurisdictions: An editorial introduction". The Round Table 95 (386): pp. 487–502.
17. ^ BBC News: Fiji suspended from Commonwealth (8th Dec 2006)
18. ^ The position of Head of the Commonwealth was discussed at the 1997 Edinburgh Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting. The consensus was that the title should remain annexed to the Sovereign.
19. ^ Commonwealth Foundation - About Us, ¶4–5
20. ^ [2]
References
- The Constitutional Structure of the Commonwealth, by K C Wheare. Clarendon Press, 1960. ISBN 0-313-23624-0
- A Guide to the Contemporary Commonwealth, by W D McIntyre. Palgrave, 2001. ISBN 0-333-96310-3
Further reading
- What does Commonwealth membership mean?, by Commonwealth Secretary-General, Don McKinnon - Barbados Advocate Newspaper, March 12th, 2007.
- The Commonwealth in the World, by J D B , by N Mansergh. University of Toronto Press, 1982. ISBN 0-8020-2492-0
- Making the New Commonwealth, by R J Moore. Clarendon Press, 1988. ISBN 0-19-820112-5
- Les ONG du Commonwealth contemporain: rôles, bilans et perspectives, by C A Auplat. L'Harmattan, Paris, 2003. ISBN 2-7475-5513-5
External links
- The Commonwealth Secretariat
- The Commonwealth of Learning
- Commonwealth Foundation
- The Commonwealth of Nations website
- The Commonwealth Secretariat
- The Commonwealth - UK government site
- Commonwealth of Learning
- The Royal Commonwealth Society
- The Royal Commonwealth Society (of Canada)
- British Empire & Commonwealth Museum, Bristol, England
- Association of Commonwealth Universities
- United Commonwealth Society
- University of London Institute of Commonwealth Studies
- Association for Commonwealth Literature and Language Studies
- The Commonwealth as a popular club
- What is the CommonwealthPDF (82.7 KiB)
- The Commonwealth Parliamentary Association
- The Commonwealth Meeting in Malta, 2005
Queen Elizabeth II | ||
|---|---|---|
| Titles and honours | List of titles and honours Head of the Commonwealth | ) |
| Commonwealth | Queen of Antigua and Barbuda Queen of Australia Queen of Canada Queen of Jamaica Queen of New Zealand Queen of the Solomon Islands Queen of the United Kingdom Prime Ministers | |
| Overseas visits | State visits Commonwealth visits | |
| Public celebrations | Silver Jubilee Golden Jubilee Queen's Official Birthday Victoria Day | |
An official language is a language that is given a special legal status in the countries, states, and other territories. It is typically the language used in a nation's legislative bodies, though the law in many nations requires that government documents be produced in other
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English
Writing system: Latin (English variant)
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Official language of: 53 countries
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ISO 639-1: en
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Writing system: Latin (English variant)
Official status
Official language of: 53 countries
Regulated by: no official regulation
Language codes
ISO 639-1: en
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Head of the Commonwealth (which currently has 53 members). These include the 16 Commonwealth realms (where the Queen is also head of state, separately from her roles as Head of the Commonwealth), Commonwealth republics, and monarchies under another dynasty (as in Tonga, Malaysia,
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Elizabeth II (Elizabeth Alexandra Mary;<ref name="sur" /> born 21 April 1926) is the Queen regnant of sixteen independent states and their overseas territories and dependencies.
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The Commonwealth Secretary-General is the head of the Commonwealth Secretariat, the central body which has served the Commonwealth of Nations since its establishment in 1965.
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Donald Charles McKinnon, PC, (born February 27, 1939) is a former Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Foreign Affairs of New Zealand. He is currently Secretary-General of the Commonwealth of Nations.
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states to the United Kingdom
Acts of English Parliament to 1601
Acts of English Parliament to 1641
Acts and Ordinances (Interregnum) to 1660
Acts of English Parliament to 1699
Acts of English Parliament to 1706
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states to the United Kingdom
Acts of English Parliament to 1601
Acts of English Parliament to 1641
Acts and Ordinances (Interregnum) to 1660
Acts of English Parliament to 1699
Acts of English Parliament to 1706
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December 11 is the 1st day of the year (2nd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. There are 0 days remaining.
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Events
- 359 - The first known Prefect of the City of Constantinople, Honoratus, took office.
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19th century - 20th century - 21st century
1900s 1910s 1920s - 1930s - 1940s 1950s 1960s
1928 1929 1930 - 1931 - 1932 1933 1934
Year 1931 (MCMXXXI
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1900s 1910s 1920s - 1930s - 1940s 1950s 1960s
1928 1929 1930 - 1931 - 1932 1933 1934
Year 1931 (MCMXXXI
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The London Declaration was a declaration issued by the governments of the Commonwealth of Nations on the issue of India's continued membership of the Commonwealth. It was made in London, the capital of the United Kingdom and of the Commonwealth, on 28 April 1949,[1]
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April 28 is the 1st day of the year (2nd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. There are 0 days remaining.
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Events
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19th century - 20th century - 21st century
1910s 1920s 1930s - 1940s - 1950s 1960s 1970s
1946 1947 1948 - 1949 - 1950 1951 1952
Year 1949 (MCMXLIX
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1910s 1920s 1930s - 1940s - 1950s 1960s 1970s
1946 1947 1948 - 1949 - 1950 1951 1952
Year 1949 (MCMXLIX
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population is the collection of people or organisms of a particular species living in a given geographic area or mortality, and migration, though the field encompasses many dimensions of population change including the family (marriage and divorce), public health, work and the
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A voluntary association or union (also sometimes called an voluntary organization, unincorporated association, or just an association) is a group of individuals who voluntarily enter into an agreement to form a body (or organization) to accomplish a
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A state is a political association with effective dominion over a geographic area. It usually includes the set of institutions that claim the authority to make the rules that govern the people of the society in that territory, though its status as a state often depends in part on
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British Overseas Territories are fourteen[1] territories which the United Kingdom considers to be under its sovereignty, but not as part of the United Kingdom itself.
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Motto
"Dieu et mon droit" [2] (French)
"God and my right"
Anthem
"God Save the Queen" [3]
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"Dieu et mon droit" [2] (French)
"God and my right"
Anthem
"God Save the Queen" [3]
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Motto
none
Anthem
Pátria Amada
(formerly Viva, Viva a FRELIMO)
Capital
(and largest city) Maputo
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none
Anthem
Pátria Amada
(formerly Viva, Viva a FRELIMO)
Capital
(and largest city) Maputo
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International Organization is a peer-reviewed academic journal that covers the entire field of international affairs. Subject areas include: foreign policies, international relations, international and comparative political economy, security policies, environmental disputes
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The Singapore Declaration of Commonwealth Principles was a declaration issued by the assembled Heads of Government of the Commonwealth of Nations, setting out the core political values that would form the main part of the Commonwealth's membership criteria.
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Democracy describes small number of related forms of government. The fundamental feature is competitive elections. Competitive elections are usually seen to require freedom of speech (especially in political affairs), freedom of the press, and some degree of rule of law.
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Human rights refers to "the basic rights and freedoms to which all humans are entitled, often held to include the right to life and liberty, freedom of thought and expression, and equality before the law.
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The terms governance and good governance are increasingly being used in development literature. Governance describes the process of decision-making and the process by which decisions are implemented (or not implemented).
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Freedom
By concept
Philosophical freedom Political freedom Liberty
By form
Assembly Association Body: clothing, modifying From government Movement Press Religion and beliefs Speech & expression Thought
Other
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By concept
Philosophical freedom Political freedom Liberty
By form
Assembly Association Body: clothing, modifying From government Movement Press Religion and beliefs Speech & expression Thought
Other
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