What is Cilicia?

In Antiquity, Cilicia (Greek: Κιλικία; Armenian: Կիլիկիա) was a commonly used name of the south coastal region of the Anatolian penninsula, now known as Çukurova, and a political entity in Roman times. Cilicia extends inland from the southeastern coast of Asia Minor (modern Turkey), due north and northeast of the island of Cyprus and comprises about a third of the land area of modern Anatolia.

Geography

Cilicia extended along the Aegean coast east from Pamphylia, to Mount Amanus (Gavurdağı Mount), which separated it from Syria. North of Cilicia lie the rugged Taurus Mountains that separate it from the high central plateau of Anatolia, which are pierced by a narrow gorge, called in Antiquity the Cilician Gates. Ancient Cilicia was naturally divided into Cilicia Trachea and Cilicia Pedias divided by the Lamas Su. Salamis, the city on the east coast of Cyprus, was included in its administrative jurisdiction. Cilicia was given an eponymous founder in the mythic Cilix, but the historic founder of the dynasty that ruled Cilicia Pedias was Mopsus, identifiable in Phoenician sources as Mpš, the founder of Mopsuestia and protector of an oracle nearby.

Cilicia Trachea ("rugged Cilicia"— Greek: Κιλικία Τραχεία; the Assyrian Khilakku or Khilikku, also sometimes transcribed as Hilakku or Hilikku, from which we get "Cilicia") is a rugged mountain district formed by the spurs of Taurus, which often terminate in rocky headlands with small sheltered harbors, a feature which, in classical times, made the coast a string of havens for pirates (see : Side), but which in the Middle Ages led to its occupation by Genoese and Venetian traders. The district is watered by the Calycadnus and was covered in ancient times by forests that supplied timber to Phoenicia and Egypt. Cilicia lacked large cities.

Cilicia Pedias ("flat Cilicia"— Greek: Κιλικία Πεδιάς; Assyrian Kue), to the east, included the rugged spurs of Taurus and a large coastal plain, with rich loamy soil, now filled with cotton, grain, olives and oranges. Many of its high places were fortified. The plain is watered by the Cydnus (Tarsus Çay), the Sarus (Seyhan) and the Pyramus (Jihun) rivers, each of which brings down much silt. The Sarus now enters the sea almost due south of Tarsus, but there are clear indications that at one period it joined the Pyramus, and that the united rivers ran to the sea west of Kara-tash. Through the rich plain of Issus ran the great highway that linked east and west on which stood the cities of Tarsus (Tarsa) on the Cydnus, Adana (Adanija) on the Sarus, and Mopsuestia (Missis) on the Pyramus.

Early history

See also:

Cilicia had a continuous settlement pattern from Neolithic period onwards (Akpinar, 2004; Mellink, 1991). Dating of the ancient settlements of the region from Neolithic to Bronze Age is as follows: Aceramic/Neolithic 8th & 7th millennium BC;Early Chalcolithic: 5800 BC, Middle Chalcolithic (correlated with Halaf and Ubaid developments in the east): ca. 5400-4500 BC, Late Chalcolithic: 4500- ca. 3400 BC, and Early Bronze Age IA: 3400-3000 BC, EBA IB: 3000-2700 BC, EBA II: 2700-2400 BC,EBA III A-B: 2400-2000 BC (Mellink, 1991: 168-170).

The Cilicians appear as Khilikku in Assyrian inscriptions, and in the early part of the 1st millennium BC were one of the four chief powers of western Asia. It is generally assumed that they had previously been subject to the Syro-Cappadocian empire; but, up to 1909 at all events, Hittite monuments had not been found in Cilicia; and we must infer that the Hittite civilizations which flourished in Cappadocia and northern Syria, communicated with each other by passes east of Amanus and not by the Cilician gates.

Under the Persian empire Cilicia was apparently governed by tributary native kings, who bore a Hellenized name or title of "Syennesis"; but it was officially included in the fourth satrapy by Darius. Xenophon found a queen in power, and no opposition was offered to the march of Cyrus the Younger.

The Persian Royal Road

The great highway from the west existed before Cyrus conquered Cilicia. On its long rough descent from the Anatolian plateau to Tarsus, it ran through the narrow pass between walls of rock called the Cilician Gates. After crossing the low hills east of the Pyramus it passed through a masonry (Cilician) gate, Demir Kapu, and entered the plain of Issus. From that plain one road ran southward through another masonry (Syrian) gate to Alexandretta, and thence crossed Mt. Amanus by the Syrian Gate, Beilan Pass, eventually to Antioch and Syria; and another ran northwards through a masonry (Amanian) gate, south of Toprak Kaleh, and crossed Mt. Amanus by the Amanian Gate, Baghche Pass, to northern Syria and the Euphrates. By the last pass, which was apparently unknown to Alexander, Darius crossed the mountains prior to the battle of Issus. Both passes are short and easy, and connect Cilicia Pedias geographically and politically with Syria rather than with Asia Minor.

Hellenism and Roman Cilicia

Similarly Alexander found the Gates open, when he came down from the plateau in 333 BC; and from these facts it may be inferred that the great pass was not under direct Persian control, but under that of a vassal power always ready to turn against its suzerain.

After Alexander's death it was long a battleground of rival Hellenistic marshals and kingdoms, and for a time fell under Ptolemaic dominion (i.e. Egypt), but finally under that of the Seleucids, who, however, never held effectually more than the eastern half.



Cilicia Trachea became the haunt of pirates, who were subdued by Pompey in 67 BC following a battle at Korakesion (modern Alanya), and Tarsus was made the capital of the Roman province of Cilicia. Cilicia Pedias became Roman territory in 103 BC, and the whole was organized by Pompey, 64 BC, into a province which, for a short time, extended to and included part of Phrygia. It was reorganized by Julius Caesar, 47 BC, and about 27 BC became part of the province Syria-Cilicia Phoenice. At first the western district was left independent under native kings or priest-dynasts, and a small kingdom, under Tarkondimotus, was left in the east; but these were finally united to the province by Vespasian, AD 74. It had been deemed important enough to be governed by a proconsul.

Under Emperor Diocletian's Tetrarchy (circa 297), Cilicia was governed by a Consularis; with Isauria and the Syrian, Mesopotamian, Egyptian and Libyan provinces, formed the Diocesis Orientis (in the third century the African component was split off as diocese Aegyptus), part of the pretorian prefecture also called Oriens ('the East', also including the dioceses Asiana and Pontus, both in Anatolia, and Thraciae on the Balkans), the rich bulk of the eastern Roman Empire.

In the 7th century it was invaded by the Muslim Arabs, who held the country until it was reoccupied by the Byzantine emperor Nicephorus II in 965.

Roman Cilicia exported the goats-hair cloth, Cilicium, of which tents were made. Tarsus was also the birthplace of the early Christian missionary and author St. Paul, writer (or proported writer) of 13 of the 27 writings included in the New Testament.

Armenian kingdom

During the time of the Crusades, the area was controlled by the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia. The Seljuk Turkish invasion of Armenia was followed by an exodus of Armenians southwards, and in 1080, Ruben, a relative of the last king of Ani, founded in the heart of the Cilician Taurus a small principality, which gradually expanded into the kingdom of Lesser Armenia or Armenia Minor. This Christian kingdom, surrounded by Moslem states, hostile to the Byzantines, giving valuable support to the crusaders, and trading with the great commercial cities of Italy had a stormy existence of about 300 years. Gosdantin (1095-1100) assisted the crusaders on their march to Antioch, and was created knight and marquis. Thoros I (1100-1123), in alliance with the Christian princes of Syria, waged successful war against the Byzantines and Seljuk Turks. Levond II (Leo the Great (r. 1187-1219)), extended the kingdom beyond Mount Taurus and established the capital at Sis. He assisted the crusaders, was crowned King by the Archbishop of Mainz, and married one of the Lusignans of the crusader kingdom Cyprus.

Haithon I (r. 1226-1270) made an alliance with the Mongols, who, before their adoption of Islam, protected his kingdom from the Mamelukes of Egypt. When Levond V died (1342), John of Lusignan was crowned king as Gosdantin IV; but he and his successors alienated the native Armenians by attempting to make them conform to the Roman Church, and by giving all posts of honor to Latins, until at last the kingdom, a prey to internal dissensions, succumbed (1375) to the attacks of the Egyptian mamelukes.

Cilicia Trachea was conquered by the Ottomans in the 15th century, but Cilicia Pedias remained independent until 1515.

See also:

Ottoman Empire

Further information: Ottoman Empire

The Armenian population of Cilicia was affected by the Armenian Genocide. On 1 January 1919, Cilicia was occupied by French troops. It had two French Governors, even several months later than the 9 March 1921 peace treaty with Ottoman Turkey which ended fighting in the area. According to the Treaty of Sèvres of 1920, Cilicia was to be a part of French Syria, but this treaty had never been in effect, because of the Turkish War of Independence.

Republic of Turkey

Further information: Franco-Turkish War, Republic of Turkey

After the Franco-Turkish war, and consequent battles during Turkish War of Independence the region become part of the Republic of Turkey in 1921 with the Treaty of Lausanne. The modern Turkish provinces Mersin, Adana, and Osmaniye are located in former Cilicia.

Mythological namesake

Greek mythology also mentions another Cilicia, as a small region situated immediately southeast of the Troad in northwestern Asia Minor, facing the Gulf of Adramyttium. The connection (if any) between this rather obscure Cilicia (which appears to have been under the thumb of Troy) and the much more well-known and well-defined region mentioned above is unclear. This Trojan Cilicia is mentioned in Homer's Iliad and Strabo's Geography, and contained equally obscure localities as Thebes, Lyrnessus and Chryse. Thebes (or Thebe) was situated under 'Mount' Placus (hence Homer calls it Thebe-under-Placus), which appears to have been little more than a southern spur of Mount Ida, and was the birthplace of Andromache, wife of Prince Hector. According to one legend, the city of Thebes was founded by Heracles, but was subsequently occupied by the Cilicians. Cilician Thebes, Lyrnessus and Chryse were all attacked and sacked by Achilles during the Trojan War.

See also

• Anazarbus

Sources and references

•  • [ e] Roman Imperial Provinces (AD 120)
Achaea	Roman Empire

•  • [ e] Late Roman Provinces
Western Empire (395 - 476 AD)
Praetorian prefecture of Gaul	Diocese of Gaul: Gallia Lugdunensis I | Gallia Lugdunensis II | Gallia Lugdunensis III | Gallia Lugdunensis IV | Gallia Belgica I | Gallia Belgica II | Germania I | Germania II | Alpes Poeninae et Graiae | Maxima Sequanorum Diocese of Viennensis (later Septem Provinciae): Viennensis | Alpes Maritimae | Aquitanica I | Aquitanica II | Novempopulana | Narbonensis I | Narbonensis II Diocese of Hispania: Baetica | Baleares | Carthaginensis | Tarraconensis | Gallaecia | Lusitania | Mauretania Tingitana Diocese of Britain: Maxima Caesariensis | Valentia (369 AD) | Britannia I | Britannia II | Flavia Caesariensis
Praetorian prefecture of Italy	Diocese of Italia suburbicaria: Campania | Tuscania et Umbria | Picenum Suburbicarium | Apulia et Calabria | Bruttia et Lucania | Samnium | Valeria | Corsica | Sicilia | Sardinia Diocese of Italia annonaria: Venetia et Istria | Aemilia | Liguria | Flaminia et Picenum Annonarium | Alpes Cottiae | Raetia I | Raetia II Diocese of Africa1: Africa proconsularis (or Zeugitana) | Byzacena | Mauretania Sitifensis | Mauretania Caesariensis | Numidia | Tripolitania Diocese of Pannonia2: Dalmatia | Noricum mediterraneum | Noricum ripensis | Pannonia I | Pannonia II | Savia | Valeria ripensis
Eastern Empire (395 - ca. 640 AD)
Praetorian prefecture of Illyricum	Diocese of Dacia: Dacia mediterranea | Moesia I | Praevalitana | Dardania | Dacia ripensis Diocese of Macedonia: Macedonia I | Macedonia Salutaris (or Macedonia II) | Thessalia | Epirus vetus | Epirus nova | Achaea | Creta
Praetorian prefecture of the East	Diocese of Thrace: Europa | Thracia | Haemimontus | Rhodope | Moesia II | Scythia Diocese of Asia: Asia | Hellespontus | Pamphylia | Caria | Lydia | Lycia | Lycaonia | Pisidia | Phrygia Pacatiana | Phrygia Salutaria | Insulae Diocese of Pontus: Bithynia | Galatia I3 | Galatia Salutaris (or Galatia II)3 | Paphlagonia | Honorias (merged to Paphlagonia in 535 AD) | Cappadocia I | Cappadocia II | Helenopontus | Pontus Polemoniacus | Armenia I | Armenia II | Armenia III (536 AD) | Armenia IV (536 AD) Diocese of the East: Cilicia I | Cilicia II | Isauria | Cyprus | Syria I | Syria Salutaris (or Syria II) | Euphratensis | Osroene | Mesopotamia | Phoenice | Phoenice Libanensis | Palestina I | Palestina II | Palestina Salutaris (or Palestina III) | Arabia Diocese of Egypt: gyptus I | gyptus II | Augustamnica I | Augustamnica II | Arcadia gypti | Thebais Superior | Thebais Inferior | Libya Superior | Libya Inferior
Other provinces	Taurica | Lazica (532/562 AD) | Spania (552 AD)
Notes	Provincial administration reformed by Diocletian, ca. 293 AD. Praetorian Prefectures established by Constantine I in 318 AD. Empire permanently partitioned in 395 AD. Dioceses abolished by Justinian I in 535-536 AD. Exarchate of Ravenna and Exarchate of Africa established after 584 AD. Provinces replaced by Theme system, ca. 640 AD. 1 re-established after reconquest by the Eastern Empire in 534 AD, as the separate praetorian prefecture of Africa 2 after 379 AD also called Diocese of Illyricum 3 joined into one proconsular province in 536 AD