Information about Confederate States Of America

Confederate States of America Confederation ← Life span? → border Flag (1865) Confederate Seal Motto Deo Vindice (Latin: Under God, Our Vindicator) Anthem (none official) "God Save the South" (unofficial) "The Bonnie Blue Flag" (unofficial) "Dixie" (unofficial) Capital Montgomery, Alabama (until May 29 1861) Richmond, Virginia (May 29 1861–April 2 1865) Danville, Virginia (from April 3 1865) Language(s) English (de facto) Religion Mostly Protestant Government Confederation }} President Jefferson Davis (D) Vice President Alexander Stephens (D) Legislature Congress of the Confederate States Historical era American Civil War  - Confederacy formed February 4 1861  - Start of Civil War April 12 1861  - Military surrender April 11 1865 Area  - 18601 1,995,392 km² (0 sq mi) Population  - 18601 est. 9,103,332       Density 0 /km  (0 /sq mi)  - slaves² est. 3,521,110  Currency CSA dollar (only notes issued) 1Area and population values do not include Missouri & Kentucky nor the Territory of Arizona. Water area:5.7% ²Slaves included in above population count. 1860 Census

The Confederate States of America (also called the Confederacy, the Confederate States, and CSA) was the government formed by eleven southern states of the United States of America between 1861 and 1865.

Seven states declared their independence from the United States before Abraham Lincoln was inaugurated as President; four more did so after the American Civil War began at the Battle of Fort Sumter. The United States of America ("The Union") held secession illegal and refused recognition of the Confederacy. Although no European powers officially recognized the CSA, British commercial interests sold it warships and operated blockade runners to help supply it.

The CSA effectively collapsed when Robert E. Lee and other Confederate generals surrendered their armies in April of 1865. The last meeting of its Cabinet took place in Georgia in May. Nearly all remaining Confederate forces surrendered by the end of June. A decade-long process known as Reconstruction temporarily gave civil rights and the right to vote to the freedmen, expelled ex-Confederate leaders from office, and re-admitted the states to representation in Congress.

History

Causes for secession

Historians phrase the cause of secession as either the threat to restrict or end slavery by the Republicans, or that a restriction on states' rights regarding slave ownership in the territories prompted southern states to withdraw from the Union.

Some southern religious leaders preached the cause of secession. Benjamin M. Palmer (1818-1902), pastor of the First Presbyterian Church of New Orleans, thundered his support for secession in a Thanksgiving sermon in 1860, arguing that white Southerners had a right and duty to maintain slavery out of economic and social self-preservation, in order to act as "guardians" to the "affectionate and loyal" but "helpless" blacks, to safeguard global economic interests, and to defend religion against "atheistic" abolitionism^[1]. His sermon was widely distributed across the region.

In what later came to be known as the Cornerstone Speech, C.S. Vice President Alexander Stephens, declared that the "cornerstone" of the new government "rest[ed] upon the great truth that the negro is not equal to the white man; that slavery—subordination to the superior race—is his natural and normal condition. This, our new government, is the first, in the history of the world, based upon this great physical, philosophical, and moral truth"^[2]. Four of the seceding states, the Deep South states of South Carolina^[3], Mississippi^[4], Georgia ^[5], and Texas^[6], issued formal declarations of causes, each of which identified the threat to slaveholders’ rights as the cause of, or a major cause of, secession; Georgia also claimed a general Federal policy of favoring Northern over Southern economic interests.

By contrast, C.S. President Jefferson Davis made no explicit reference to slavery in his inaugural address, instead emphasizing states' rights as the reason for secession ^[7].

C.S. Vice President Alexander Stephens declared that, in the longest portion of the Cornerstone Speech, how this constitution eliminated the tariff and removed the Commerce Clause, taking away congressional power to regulate any aspect of commerce. Stephens believed that the new country would have a clear delineation between Federal and State responsibilities, and took the position similar to that of South Carolina during the nullification crisis that the Federal government should not pay for internal improvements.

Seceding states

Confederate States' Involvement in the American Civil War
South Carolina
Mississippi
Florida
Alabama
Georgia
Louisiana
Texas
Virginia
Arkansas
North Carolina
Tennessee

Seven states seceded by February 1861:

• South Carolina (December 20 1860),^[8]
• Mississippi (January 9 1861),^[9]
• Florida (January 10, 1861),^[10]
• Alabama (January 11, 1861),^[11]
• Georgia (January 19, 1861),^[12]
• Louisiana (January 26, 1861),^[13]
• Texas (February 1, 1861).^[14]

After Lincoln called for troops, four more states seceded:

• Virginia (April 17, 1861);^[15] there was also a rump Union government of Virginia^[16]
• Arkansas (May 6, 1861),^[17]
• North Carolina (May 20, 1861)^[18]
• Tennessee (June 8, 1861).^[19][20]

Two more states had rival (or rump) governments. The Confederacy admitted them but they never controlled these states and the pro-Confederate state governments were soon in exile:

• Missouri did not secede but a rump group proclaimed secession (October 31, 1861).^[21][22]
• Kentucky did not secede but a rump, unelected group proclaimed secession (November 20, 1861).^[23][24]

Both states allowed slavery and both had strong Unionist and Confederate counties, including some Unionist slave-owners. The legalities of the matter remain in dispute to the present day.

Rise and fall of the Confederacy

The American Civil War broke out in April of 1861 with the Battle of Fort Sumter in Charleston, South Carolina. Federal troops of the U.S. had retreated to Fort Sumter soon after South Carolina declared their secession. U.S. President Buchanan had attempted to resupply Sumter by sending the Star of the West, but Confederate forces fired upon the ship, driving it away. U.S. President Abraham Lincoln also attempted to resupply Sumter. Lincoln notified South Carolina Governor Francis W. Pickens that "an attempt will be made to supply Fort Sumter with provisions only, and that if such attempt be not resisted, no effort to throw in men, arms, or ammunition will be made without further notice, [except] in case of an attack on the fort." In response, the Confederate cabinet decided at a meeting in Montgomery to open fire on Fort Sumter in an attempt to force its surrender before the relief fleet arrived. On April 12, 1861, Confederate troops, following orders from Davis and his Secretary of War, fired upon the federal troops occupying Fort Sumter, forcing their surrender. Following the Battle of Fort Sumter, Lincoln called for the remaining states in the Union to send troops to recapture Sumter and other forts and customs-houses^[25] in the South that Confederate forces had claimed, some by force. This proclamation was made before Congress could convene on the matter, and the original request from the War Department called for volunteers for only three months of duty.^[25] Lincoln's call for troops resulted in four more states voting to secede, rather than provide troops for the Union. Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina joined the Confederacy for a total of 11. Once Virginia joined the Confederate States, the Confederate capital was moved from Montgomery, Alabama, to Richmond, Virginia. All but two major battles took place in Confederate territory.

Alexander H. Stephens maintained that Lincoln's attempt to resupply Sumter had provoked the war.^[26]

Kentucky was a border state during the war and, for a time, had two state governments, one supporting the Confederacy and one supporting the Union. The original government remained in the Union after a short-lived attempt at neutrality, but a rival faction from that state was accepted as a member of the Confederate States of America; it did not control any territory. A more complex situation surrounds the Missouri Secession, but, in any event, the Confederacy considered Missouri a member of the Confederate States of America; it did not control any territory. With Kentucky and Missouri, the number of Confederate states can be counted as 13; later versions of Confederate flags had thirteen stars, reflecting the Confederacy's claims to those states.

The five tribal governments of the Indian Territory — which became Oklahoma in 1907 — also mainly supported the Confederacy, providing troops and one General officer. It was represented in the Confederate Congress after 1863 by Elias Cornelius Boudinot representing the Cherokee, and Samuel Benton Callahan representing the Seminole and Creek people.

Citizens at Mesilla and Tucson in the southern part of New Mexico Territory formed a secession convention and voted to join the Confederacy on March 16, 1861, and appointed Lewis Owings as the new territorial governor. In July, Mesilla appealed to Confederate troops in El Paso, Texas, under Lieutenant Colonel John Baylor for help in removing the Union Army under Major Isaac Lynde that was stationed nearby. The Confederates defeated Lynde at the Battle of Mesilla on July 27. After the battle, Baylor established a territorial government for the Confederate Arizona Territory and named himself governor. In 1862, a New Mexico Campaign was launched under General Henry Hopkins Sibley to take the northern half of New Mexico. Although Confederates briefly occupied the territorial capital of Santa Fe, they were defeated at Glorietta Pass in March and retreated, never to return.

The northernmost slave states (Missouri, Kentucky, Maryland, Delaware and West Virginia) were contested territory, but the Union won control by 1862. In 1861, martial law was declared in Maryland (the state which borders the U.S. capital, Washington, D.C., on three sides) to block attempts at secession. Delaware, also a slave state, never considered secession, nor did Washington, D.C. In 1861, a unionist legislature in Wheeling, Virginia seceded from Virginia, claiming 48 counties, and joined the United States in 1863 as the state of West Virginia with a constitution that gradually abolished slavery.

Attempts to secede from the Confederate States of America by some counties in East Tennessee were held in check by Confederate declarations of martial law ^{[27] [28]}.

The surrender of the Army of Northern Virginia by General Lee at Appomattox Court House on April 9, 1865, is generally taken as the end of the Confederate States. President Davis was captured at Irwinville, Georgia, on May 10, and the remaining Confederate armies surrendered by June 1865. The last Confederate flag was hauled down from CSS Shenandoah on November 6, 1865.

Government and politics

Constitution

The Confederate States Constitution reveals much about the motivations for secession from the Union. Although much of it was copied verbatim from the United States Constitution, it contained several explicit protections of the institution of slavery, though international slave trading was prohibited. It also reflected a stronger philosophy of states' rights, curtailing the power of the central authority: the Confederate government was prohibited from instituting protective tariffs or from using revenues collected in one state for funding internal improvements in another state. In contrast with the largely secular language of the United States Constitution, the Confederate Constitution overtly asked God's blessing ("invoking the favor of Almighty God.")

The constitution did not specifically include a provision allowing states to secede; the Preamble spoke of each state "acting in its sovereign and independent character" but also of the formation of a "permanent federal government". The Southern leaders met in Montgomery, Alabama, to write their constitution.

The President of the Confederate States of America was to be elected to a six-year term, but could not be re-elected. (The only president was Jefferson Davis; the Confederacy was defeated by the Union before he completed his term.) One unique power granted to the Confederate president was his ability to subject a bill to a line item veto, a power held by some state governors. The Confederate Congress could overturn either the general or the line item vetoes with the same two-thirds majorities that are required in the U.S. Congress. In addition, appropriations not specifically requested by the executive branch required passage by a two-thirds vote in both houses of Congress.

Printed currency in the forms of bills and stamps was authorized and put into circulation, although by the individual states in the Confederacy's name. The government considered issuing Confederate coinage. Plans, dies and 4 "proofs" were created, but a lack of bullion prevented any minting.

Civil liberties

The Confederacy actively used the military to arrest people suspected of loyalty to the United States. Historian Mark Neely found 2,700 names of men arrested and estimated the full list was much longer. They arrested at about the same rate as the Union arrested Confederate loyalists. Neely concludes:

The Confederate citizen was not any freer than the Union citizen — and perhaps no less likely to be arrested by military authorities. In fact, the Confederate citizen may have been in some ways less free than his Northern counterpart. For example, freedom to travel within the Confederate states was severely limited by a domestic passport system. [Neely 11, 16]

Capital

The capital of the Confederate States of America was Montgomery, Alabama, from February 4, 1861, until May 29, 1861. Richmond, Virginia, was named the new capital on May 6, 1861. Shortly before the end of the war, the Confederate government evacuated Richmond, planning to relocate further south. Little came of these plans before Lee's surrender at Appomattox Court House. Danville, Virginia, served as the last capital of the Confederate States of America, from April 3 to April 10, 1865.

International diplomacy

Once the war with the United States began, the best hope for the survival of the Confederacy was military intervention by Britain and France. The United States realized this as well and made it clear that recognition of the Confederacy meant war with the United States — and the cutoff of food shipments into Britain. The Confederates who had believed that "cotton is king" — that is, Britain had to support the Confederacy to obtain cotton — were proven wrong. The war and Union blockade of the South caused economic hardship in textile-producing areas of England such as Lancashire, which depended heavily on cotton exports from the seceding states^[29]; however, abolitionist sentiment among English workers ran counter to this economic interest in Confederate victory^[30].

During its existence, the Confederate government sent repeated delegations to Europe; historians do not give them high marks for diplomatic skills. James M. Mason was sent to London as Confederate minister to Queen Victoria, and John Slidell was sent to Paris as minister to Napoleon III. Both were able to obtain private meetings with high British and French officials, but they failed to secure official recognition for the Confederacy. Britain and the United States were at sword's point during the Trent Affair in late 1861. Mason and Slidell had been illegally seized from a British ship by an American warship. Queen Victoria's husband, Prince Albert, helped calm the situation, and Lincoln released Mason and Slidell, so the episode was no help to the Confederacy.

Throughout the early years of the war, British foreign secretary Lord Russell and Napoleon III, and, to a lesser extent, British Prime Minister Lord Palmerston, were interested in the idea of recognition of the Confederacy, or at least of offering a mediation. Recognition meant certain war with the United States, loss of American grain, loss of exports to the United States, loss of huge investments in American securities, possible war in Canada and other North American colonies, much higher taxes, many lives lost and a severe threat to the entire British merchant marine, in exchange for the possibility of some cotton. Many party leaders and the general public wanted no war with such high costs and meager benefits. Recognition was considered following the Second Battle of Manassas when the British government was preparing to mediate in the conflict, but the Union victory at the Battle of Antietam and Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation, combined with internal opposition, caused the government to back away.

In November 1863, Confederate diplomat A. Dudley Mann met Pope Pius IX and received a letter addressed "to the Illustrious and Honorable Jefferson Davis, President of the Confederate States of America.” Mann, in his dispatch to Richmond, interpreted the letter as "a positive recognition of our Government," and some have mistakenly viewed it as a de facto recognition of the C.S.A. Confederate Secretary of State Judah P. Benjamin, however, interpreted it as "a mere inferential recognition, unconnected with political action or the regular establishment of diplomatic relations" and thus did not assign it the weight of formal recognition ^[31]. For the remainder of the war, Confederate commissioners continued meeting with Cardinal Antonelli, the Vatican Secretary of State. In 1864, Catholic Bishop Patrick N. Lynch of Charleston traveled to the Vatican with an authorization from Jefferson Davis to represent the Confederacy before the Holy See. That same year, Davis sent Duncan Kenner to France and England with an offer to emancipate Southern slaves in exchange for recognition of the Confederacy from France and England.^[32] This attempt was unsuccessful.

No country appointed any diplomat officially to the Confederacy, but several maintained their consuls in the South who had been appointed before the war. In 1861, Ernst Raven applied for approval as the Saxe-Coburg-Gotha consul, but he was a citizen of Texas and there is no evidence that Saxe officials knew what he was doing. In 1863, the Confederacy expelled all foreign consuls (all of them British or French diplomats) for advising their subjects to refuse to serve in combat against the U.S.

Throughout the war most European powers adopted a policy of neutrality, meeting informally with Confederate diplomats but withholding diplomatic recognition. None ever sent an ambassador or official delegation to Richmond. However, they applied international law principles that recognized the Union and Confederate sides as belligerents. Canada allowed both Confederate and Union agents to work openly within its borders, and some state governments in northern Mexico negotiated local agreements to cover trade on the Texas border.

"Died of states' rights"

Historian Frank Lawrence Owsley argued that the Confederacy "died of states' rights."^[33] According to Owsley, strong-willed governors and state legislatures in the South refused to give the national government the soldiers and money it needed because they feared that Richmond was encroaching on the rights of the states. Georgia's governor Joseph Brown warned that he saw the signs of a deep-laid conspiracy on the part of Jefferson Davis to destroy states' rights and individual liberty. Brown declaimed: "Almost every act of usurpation of power, or of bad faith, has been conceived, brought forth and nurtured in secret session." To grant the Confederate government the power to draft soldiers was the "essence of military despotism." ^[34] In 1863 governor Pendleton Murrah of Texas insisted that Texas troops were needed for self-defense (against Indians or a threatened Union invasion), and refused to send them East.^[35] Zebulon Vance, the governor of North Carolina was notoriously hostile to Davis and his demands. Opposition to conscription in North Carolina was intense and its results were disastrous for recruiting. Governor Vance's faith in states' rights drove him into a stubborn opposition. ^[36]

Vice President Stephens broke publicly with President Davis, saying any accommodation would only weaken the republic, and he therefore had no choice but to break publicly with the Confederate administration and the president. Stephens charged that to allow Davis to make "arbitrary arrests" and to draft state officials conferred on him more power than the English Parliament had ever bestowed on the king. History proved the dangers of such unchecked authority." He added that Davis intended to suppress the peace meetings in North Carolina and "put a muzzle upon certain presses" (especially the antiwar newspaper Raleigh Standard) in order to control elections in that state. Echoing Patrick Henry's "give me liberty or give me death" Stephens warned the Southerners they should never view liberty as "subordinate to independence" because the cry of "independence first and liberty second" was a "fatal delusion." As historian George Rable concludes, "For Stephens, the essence of patriotism, the heart of the Confederate cause, rested on an unyielding commitment to traditional rights. In his idealist vision of politics, military necessity, pragmatism, and compromise meant nothing."^[37]

The survival of the Confederacy depended on a strong base of civilians and soldiers devoted to victory. The soldiers performed well, though increasing numbers deserted in the last year. The civilians, although enthusiastic in 1861-62 seem to have lost faith in the nation's future by 1864, and instead looked to protect their homes and communities. As Rable explains, "As the Confederacy shrank, citizens' sense of the cause more than ever narrowed to their own states and communities. This contraction of civic vision was more than a crabbed libertarianism; it represented an increasingly widespread disillusionment with the Confederate experiment. ^[38]

Relations with the United States

For the four years of its existence, the Confederate States of America asserted its independence and appointed dozens of diplomatic agents abroad. The United States government, by contrast, asserted that the Southern states were provinces in rebellion and refused any formal recognition of their status. Thus, U.S. Secretary of State William H. Seward issued formal instructions to Charles Francis Adams, the new minister to Great Britain:

You will indulge in no expressions of harshness or disrespect, or even impatience concerning the seceding States, their agents, or their people. But you will, on the contrary, all the while remember that those States are now, as they always heretofore have been, and, notwithstanding their temporary self-delusion, they must always continue to be, equal and honored members of this Federal Union, and that their citizens throughout all political misunderstandings and alienations, still are and always must be our kindred and countrymen.[39]

However, if the British seemed inclined to recognize the Confederacy, or even waver in that regard, they were to be sharply warned, with a strong hint of war:

[if Britain is] tolerating the application of the so-called seceding States, or wavering about it, you will not leave them to suppose for a moment that they can grant that application and remain friends with the United States. You may even assure them promptly, in that case, that if they determine to recognize, they may at the same time prepare to enter into alliance with the enemies of this republic.[40]

The Confederate Congress responded to the hostilities by formally declaring war on the United States in May 1861 — calling it "The War between the Confederate States of America and the United States of America." The Union government never declared war but conducted its war efforts under a proclamation of blockade and rebellion. Mid-war negotiations between the two sides occurred without formal political recognition, though the laws of war governed military relationships.

Four years after the war, in 1869, the United States Supreme Court ruled in Texas v. White that secession was unconstitutional and legally null. The court's opinion was authored by Chief Justice Salmon P. Chase. Jefferson Davis, former president of the Confederacy, and Alexander Stephens, its former vice-president, both penned arguments in favor of secession's legality, most notably Davis' The Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government.

Confederate flags

Main article: Flags of the Confederate States of America

> > >

1st National Flag "Stars and Bars"	2nd National Flag "Stainless Banner"	3rd National Flag "Blood Stained Banner"	thumb|center
thumb|center]] thumb|center	thumb|center]] CSA Naval Jack 1861-1863	thumb|center]] CSA Naval Jack 1863-1865	thumb|center]] Battle Flag "Southern Cross"
thumb|center
thumb|center	thumb|center]] Union flag under battle conditions, so the Confederate battle flag, the "Southern Cross", became the one more commonly used in military operations. The Southern Cross has 13 stars, adding the four states that joined the Confederacy after Fort Sumter, and the two divided states of Kentucky and Missouri.
thumb|center	thumb|center
thumb|center	thumb|right|330px|The original Confederate Cabinet. L-R: Judah P. Benjamin, Stephen Mallory, Christopher Memminger, Alexander Stephens, LeRoy Pope Walker, Jefferson Davis, John H. Reagan and Robert Toombs.]]	center cellpadding="1" cellspacing="4" style="margin:3px; border:3px solid #000000;" align="left"	thumb|center
thumb|center -	thumb|center align="left"|Office||align="left"|Name||align="left"|Term	thumb|center -	thumb|center
thumb|center -	thumb|center align="left"|President||align="left" |Jefferson Davis||align="left"|1861-1865	thumb|center -	thumb|center align="left"|Vice President||align="left" |Alexander Stephens||align="left"|1861-1865
thumb|center -	thumb|center -	thumb|center	thumb|center -
thumb|center align="left"|Secretary of State||align="left"|Robert Toombs||align="left"|1861	thumb|center -	thumb|center align="left"| ||align="left"|Robert M.T. Hunter||align="left"|1861-1862	thumb|center -
thumb|center align="left"| ||align="left"|Judah P. Benjamin||align="left"|1862-1865	thumb|center -	thumb|center align="left"|Secretary of the Treasury||align="left"|Christopher Memminger||align="left"|1861-1864	thumb|center -
thumb|center align="left"| ||align="left"|George Trenholm||align="left"|1864-1865	thumb|center -	thumb|center align="left"| ||align="left"|John H. Reagan||align="left"|1865	thumb|center -
thumb|center align="left"|Secretary of War||align="left"|Leroy Pope Walker||align="left"|1861	thumb|center -	thumb|center align="left"| ||align="left"|Judah P. Benjamin||align="left"|1861-1862	thumb|center -
thumb|center align="left"| ||align="left"|George W. Randolph||align="left"|1862	thumb|center -	thumb|center align="left"| ||align="left"|James Seddon||align="left"|1862-1865	thumb|center -
thumb|center align="left"| ||align="left"|John C. Breckinridge||align="left"|1865	thumb|center -	thumb|center align="left"|Secretary of the Navy||align="left"|Stephen Mallory||align="left"|1861-1865	thumb|center -
thumb|center align="left"|Postmaster General||align="left"|John H. Reagan||align="left"|1861-1865	thumb|center -	thumb|center align="left"|Attorney General||align="left"|Judah P. Benjamin||align="left"|1861	thumb|center -
thumb|center align="left"| ||align="left"|Thomas Bragg||align="left"|1861-1862	thumb|center -	thumb|center align="left"| ||align="left"|Thomas H. Watts||align="left"|1862-1863	thumb|center -
thumb|center align="left"| ||align="left"|George Davis||align="left"|1864-1865	thumb|center -	thumb|center }	thumb|center
thumb|center	Confederate Congress]]	The legislative branch of the Confederate States of America was the Confederate Congress. Like the United States Congress, the Confederate Congress consisted of two houses: the Confederate Senate, whose membership included two senators from each state (and chosen by the state legislature), and the Confederate House of Representatives, with members popularly elected by residents of the individual states.
thumb|center	thumb|center
thumb|center	thumb|center]] Howell Cobb, Sr. of Georgia - February 4 1861-February 17 1862	thumb|center
thumb|center	thumb|center	thumb|center
thumb|center	thumb|center	thumb|center	thumb|center
thumb|center	thumb|center	thumb|center
thumb|center	thumb|center	/ref>. Some Confederate district courts were, however, established within some of the individual states of the Confederate States of America; namely, South Carolina, Arkansas, Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, North Carolina, Tennessee, Texas and Virginia (and possibly others). At the end of the war, U.S. district courts resumed jurisdiction[41].|thumb|center]]
thumb|center	thumb|center
thumb|center	thumb|center	thumb|center	thumb|center
thumb|center	right|thumb|550px|Map of the states and territories claimed by the Confederate States of America.]]	thumb|center]] Trans-Mississippi. The highest point (excluding Arizona and New Mexico) was Guadalupe Peak in Texas at 8,750 feet (2,667 m).
thumb|center	thumb|center
thumb|center	thumb|center]] fall of Vicksburg in July 1863, it became impossible for units to cross the Mississippi since Union gunboats constantly patrolled it. The South thus lost use of its western regions.	thumb|center
The area claimed by the Confederate States of America was overwhelmingly rural. Small towns of more than 1,000 were few — the typical county seat had a population of less than 500 people. Cities were rare. New Orleans was the only Southern city in the list of top 10 largest U.S. cities in the 1860 census, and it was captured by the Union in 1862. Only 13 Confederate cities ranked among the top 100 U.S. cities in 1860, most of them ports whose economic activities were shut down by the Union blockade. The population of Richmond swelled after it became the national capital, reaching an estimated 128,000 in 1864 (Dabney 1990:182). Other large Southern cities (St. Louis]], Louisville, and Washington, as well as Wheeling, West Virginia, and Alexandria, Virginia) were never under the control of the Confederate government.	center class="wikitable" align="center"	thumb|center - style="background: #efefef;"
[[! # !! City !! 1860 population !! thumb|center 1860 U.S. rank	thumb|center Return to U.S. control	thumb|center -	thumb|center style="background: #efefef;" | 1.
thumb|center New Orleans, Louisiana	thumb|center style="text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;" | 168,675	thumb|center style="text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;" | 6	thumb|center 1862
thumb|center -	thumb|center style="background: #efefef;" | 2.	thumb|center Charleston, South Carolina	thumb|center style="text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;" | 40,522
thumb|center style="text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;" | 22	thumb|center 1865	thumb|center -	thumb|center style="background: #efefef;" | 3.
thumb|center Richmond, Virginia	thumb|center style="text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;" | 37,910	thumb|center style="text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;" | 25	thumb|center 1865
thumb|center -	thumb|center style="background: #efefef;" | 4.	thumb|center Mobile, Alabama	thumb|center style="text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;" | 29,258
thumb|center style="text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;" | 27	thumb|center 1865	thumb|center -	thumb|center style="background: #efefef;" | 5.
thumb|center Memphis, Tennessee	thumb|center style="text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;" | 22,623	thumb|center style="text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;" | 38	thumb|center 1862
thumb|center -	thumb|center style="background: #efefef;" | 6.	thumb|center Savannah, Georgia	thumb|center style="text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;" | 22,292
thumb|center style="text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;" | 41	thumb|center 1864	thumb|center -	thumb|center style="background: #efefef;" | 7.
thumb|center Petersburg, Virginia	thumb|center style="text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;" | 18,266	thumb|center style="text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;" | 50	thumb|center 1865
thumb|center -	thumb|center style="background: #efefef;" | 8.	thumb|center Nashville, Tennessee	thumb|center style="text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;" | 16,988
thumb|center style="text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;" | 54	thumb|center 1862	thumb|center -	thumb|center style="background: #efefef;" | 9.
thumb|center Norfolk, Virginia	thumb|center style="text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;" | 14,620	thumb|center style="text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;" | 61	thumb|center 1862
thumb|center -	thumb|center style="background: #efefef;" | 10.	thumb|center Augusta, Georgia	thumb|center style="text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;" | 12,493
thumb|center style="text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;" | 77	thumb|center 1865	thumb|center -	thumb|center style="background: #efefef;" | 11.
thumb|center Columbus, Georgia	thumb|center style="text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;" | 9,621	thumb|center style="text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;" | 97	thumb|center 1865
thumb|center -	thumb|center style="background: #efefef;" | 12.	thumb|center Atlanta, Georgia	thumb|center style="text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;" | 9,554
thumb|center style="text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;" | 99	thumb|center 1864	thumb|center -	thumb|center style="background: #efefef;" | 13.
thumb|center Wilmington, North Carolina	thumb|center style="text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;" | 9,553	thumb|center style="text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;" | 100	thumb|center 1865
thumb|center }	thumb|center
thumb|center	Economy of the Confederate States of America]]	[42]]]. The tariff mattered little; the Confederacy's ports were blocked to commercial traffic by the Union's blockade, and very few people paid taxes on goods smuggled from the Union states. The government collected about $3.5 million in tariff revenue from the start of their war against the Union to late 1864. The lack of adequate financial resources led the Confederacy to finance the war through printing money, which led to high inflation.|thumb|center
thumb|center	thumb|right|Navy Jack of the CSA]]		thumb|center
thumb|center	thumb|center	thumb|center]] West Point but did not graduate.) The Confederate officer corps was composed in part of young men from slave-owning families, but many came from non-owners. The Confederacy appointed junior and field grade officers by election from the enlisted ranks. Although no Army service academy was established for the Confederacy, many colleges of the South (such as the The Citadel and Virginia Military Institute) maintained cadet corps that were seen as a training ground for Confederate military leadership. A naval academy was established in 1863, but no midshipmen had graduated by the time the Confederacy collapsed.
[43]]]|thumb|center	thumb|center
	thumb|right|General Robert E. Lee, for many, the face of the Confederate army]]	thumb|center
thumb|center	thumb|center	thumb|center	thumb|center
thumb|center	thumb|center]] Samuel Cooper (New York) - General (Adjutant General and highest ranking general in the Army); not in combat	thumb|center	thumb|center]] Thomas J. "Stonewall" Jackson (Virginia)- Lieutenant General
thumb|center	thumb|center	thumb|center	thumb|center
thumb|center	thumb|center	thumb|center	thumb|center
thumb|center	thumb|center	thumb|center]] Commodore	thumb|center
thumb|center	thumb|center	thumb|center	thumb|center]] Richard Taylor (Kentucky) - Lieutenant General (Son of U.S. President Zachary Taylor)
thumb|center	thumb|center	thumb|center	thumb|center
thumb|center	thumb|center	thumb|center
center class="wikitable"	thumb|center - style="background: #efefef; vertical-align: top;"	thumb|center	thumb|center
thumb|center	thumb|center	thumb|center	thumb|center
thumb|center -	thumb|center style="text-align:left;" | South Carolina	thumb|center align="center"|	thumb|center December 20, 1860
thumb|center February 8, 1861	thumb|center 1865	thumb|center July 9, 1868	thumb|center -
thumb|center style="text-align:left;" | Mississippi	thumb|center align="center"|	thumb|center January 9, 1861	thumb|center February 8, 1861
thumb|center 1863	thumb|center February 23, 1870	thumb|center -	thumb|center style="text-align:left;" | Florida
thumb|center align="center"|	thumb|center January 10, 1861	thumb|center February 8, 1861	thumb|center 1865
thumb|center June 25, 1868	thumb|center -	thumb|center style="text-align:left;" | Alabama	thumb|center align="center"|
thumb|center January 11, 1861	thumb|center February 8, 1861	thumb|center 1865	thumb|center July 13, 1868
thumb|center -	thumb|center style="text-align:left;" | Georgia	thumb|center align="center"|	thumb|center January 19, 1861
thumb|center February 8, 1861	thumb|center 1865	thumb|center 1st Date July 21, 1868; 2nd Date July 15, 1870	thumb|center -
thumb|center style="text-align:left;" | Louisiana	thumb|center align="center"|	thumb|center January 26, 1861	thumb|center February 8, 1861
thumb|center 1863	thumb|center July 9, 1868	thumb|center -	thumb|center style="text-align:left;" | Texas
thumb|center align="center"|	thumb|center February 1, 1861	thumb|center March 2, 1861	thumb|center 1865
thumb|center March 30, 1870	thumb|center -	thumb|center style="text-align:left;" | Virginia	thumb|center align="center"|
thumb|center April 17, 1861	thumb|center May 7, 1861	thumb|center 1865; (1861 for West Virginia)	thumb|center January 26, 1870
thumb|center -	thumb|center style="text-align:left;" | Arkansas	thumb|center align="center"|	thumb|center May 6, 1861
thumb|center May 18, 1861	thumb|center 1864	thumb|center June 22, 1868	thumb|center -
thumb|center style="text-align:left;" | North Carolina	thumb|center align="center"|	thumb|center May 20, 1861	thumb|center May 21, 1861
thumb|center 1865	thumb|center July 4, 1868	thumb|center -	thumb|center style="text-align:left;" | Tennessee
thumb|center align="center"|	thumb|center June 8, 1861	thumb|center July 2, 1861	thumb|center 1863
thumb|center July 24, 1866	thumb|center -	thumb|center style="text-align:left;" | Missouri	thumb|center align="center"|
thumb|center October 31, 1861	thumb|center November 28, 1861	thumb|center 1861	thumb|center Unelected Pro-Union Government from 1861
thumb|center -	thumb|center style="text-align:left;" | Kentucky (Russellville Convention)	thumb|center align="center"|	thumb|center November 20, 1861
thumb|center December 10, 1861	thumb|center 1861	thumb|center Pro-Union & C.S.A. Government from 1861	thumb|center -
thumb|center style="text-align:left;" | Arizona Territory (Mesilla government)	thumb|center align="center"|	thumb|center March 16, 1861	thumb|center February 14, 1862
thumb|center 1862	thumb|center Not a state until 1912	thumb|center }
thumb|center	thumb|center	thumb|center	thumb|center
thumb|center	thumb|center	thumb|center	thumb|center
thumb|center]] Seal of the Confederate States of America	thumb|center	thumb|center	thumb|center
thumb|center

thumb|centerthumb|center [[

1. ^ The text of Benjamin Palmer's "Thanksgiving Sermon".
2. ^ The text of Alexander Stephens' "Cornerstone Speech".
3. ^ The text of the Declaration of the Immediate Causes Which Induce and Justify the Secession of South Carolina from the Federal Union.
4. ^ The text of A Declaration of the Immediate Causes which Induce and Justify the Secession of the State of Mississippi from the Federal Union.
5. ^ The text of Georgia's secession declaration.
6. ^ The text of A Declaration of the Causes which Impel the State of Texas to Secede from the Federal Union.
7. ^ The text of .
8. ^ The text of South Carolina's Ordinance of Secession.
9. ^ The text of Mississippi's Ordinance of Secession.
10. ^ The text of Florida's Ordinance of Secession.
11. ^ The text of Alabama's Ordinance of Secession.
12. ^ The text of Georgia's Ordinance of Secession.
13. ^ The text of Louisiana's Ordinance of Secession.
14. ^ The text of Texas' Ordinance of Secession.
15. ^ The text of Virginia's Ordinance of Secession.
16. ^ Virginia did not turn over its military to the Confederate States until June 8, 1861 and the Constitution of the Confederate States was ratified on June 19, 1861.
17. ^ The text of Arkansas' Ordinance of Secession.
18. ^ The text of North Carolina's Ordinance of Secession.
19. ^ The text of Tennessee's Ordinance of Secession.
20. ^ The Tennessee legislature ratified an agreement to enter a military league with the Confederate States on May 7, 1861. Tennessee voters approved the agreement on June 8, 1861.
21. ^ The text of Missouri's Ordinance of Secession.
22. ^ The pro-Confederate politicians tried to meet in Neosho, Missouri, and then were driven out of the entire state.
23. ^ The text of Kentucky's Ordinance of Secession.
24. ^ Russellville Convention
25. ^ Lincoln's proclamation calling for troops from the remaining states (bottom of page); Department of War details to States (top)
26. ^ Alexander H. Stephens A Constitutional View of the Late War Between the States (1870), Vol. 2, p. 36. 75 MB PDF file "I maintain that it was inaugurated and begun, though no blow had been struck, when the hostile fleet, styled the "Relief Squadron," with eleven ships, carrying two hundred and eighty-five guns and two thousand four hundred men, was sent out from New York and Norfolk, with orders from the authorities at Washington, to reenforce Fort Sumter peaceably, if permitted "but forcibly if they must."
27. ^ ""Marx and Engels on the American Civil War", Army of the Cumberland and George H. Thomas source page
28. ^ "Background of the Confederate States Constitution", The American Civil War Home Page
29. ^ International Slavery Museum, Liverpool, UK
30. ^ See text of inscription on the Abraham Lincoln statue in Manchester, UK
31. ^ Official Records of the Union and Confederate Navies in the War of the Rebellion, p. 1015.
32. ^ Louisiana Department of Culture, Recreation, and Tourism's description of Kenner's diplomatic mission
33. ^ Frank L. Owsley, State Rights in the Confederacy (Chicago, 1925),
34. ^ Rable (1994) 257; however Wallace Hettle in The Peculiar Democracy: Southern Democrats in Peace and Civil War (2001) p. 158 says Owsley's "famous thesis...is overstated."
35. ^ John Moretta; "Pendleton Murrah and States Rights in Civil War Texas," Civil War History, Vol. 45, 1999
36. ^ Albert Burton Moore,Conscription and Conflict in the Confederacy. (1924) p. 295.
37. ^ Rable (1994) 258-9
38. ^ Rable (1994) p 265
39. ^ William Seward to Charles Francis Adams, April 10, 1861 in Marion Mills Miller, Ed. Life And Works Of Abraham Lincoln (1907) Vol 6.
40. ^ ibid
41. ^ Records of District Courts of the United States, National Archives.
42. ^ Tariff of the Confederate States of America, May 21, 1861.
43. ^ Ervin L. Jordan, Jr. Black Confederates and Afro-Yankees in Civil War Virginia (1995)

|thumb|center]]thumb|center

thumb|center thumb|centerthumb|centerthumb|centerthumb|center

thumb|centerthumb|centerthumb|center thumb|centerthumb|center

thumb|centerthumb|centerthumb|center thumb|center thumb|centerthumb|center thumb|centerthumb|centerthumb|center thumb|centerthumb|center

thumb|center thumb|centerthumb|centerthumb|center thumb|centerthumb|center thumb|centerthumb|center thumb|centerthumb|center thumb|centerthumb|center

thumb|center thumb|centerthumb|centerthumb|center thumb|centerthumb|centerthumb|centermajor online collection of complete texts in HTML format, from U. of North Carolina|thumb|center]] thumb|center]]thumb|center

thumb|center thumb|center]]thumb|center]] 1861|thumb|center]] published weekly by Turnwold, Ga., edited by J.A. Turner|thumb|center]] thumb|center]] by A. L. Hull, 1905.|thumb|center]]and other Civil War documents owned by the Hargrett Rare Book and Manuscript Library at the University of Georgia Libraries.|thumb|center]]thumb|center]] - numerous online text, image, and audio collections.|thumb|center]]thumb|center]]

v]] •  • [ e]